5. Results
Eq. (1) is a dynamic panel data model which has been estimated using Arellano–Bond panel data techniques (Arellano and Bond, 1991).24 The results are in columns (a) and (b) of Table 4. Columns from (c) to (g), Table 4, show robustness checks results which will be dealt with in the next sub-section. In order to control for heteroskedasticity, every estimated equation in Table 4 has robust standard errors.25 The last row of Table 4 displays the p value of the Arellano–Bond test for second-order autocorrelation in the first-differenced residual; the null hypothesis of no second-order autocorrelation is not rejected. Given the distributed lags structure of Eq. (1), the point of interest is the final effect of each regressor on the dependent variable that is in the long-run effect. Therefore, the long-run multipliers of each variable (thereafter LRM) have been calculated.