leakage path, but the use of a transformer presents drawbacks such as higher
cost and additional losses, leading in
general to a reduction of the efficiency.
Nevertheless, the transformer is mandatory in some countries because of local
regulations. If the transformer is not
mandatory, as a second solution, several power converter topologies have
been specifically designed to minimize
the effect of the HF harmonics on the
leakage currents [9].
Legal Requirements of PV Systems
Galvanic Isolation
One important requirement for PV systems is galvanic isolation for safety
reasons. This feature is required only
in some national codes, such as RD-
1699/2011, which applies to the connection of PV systems to the lowvoltage
(LV) distribution grid in Spain. This requirement means that the PV topologies
are not standardized and that they have
to be specifically designed to fulfill this
galvanic isolation requirement, which is
usually achieved by introducing a transformer (high or low frequency).
Anti-Islanding Detection
The islanding phenomenon for grid-
connected PV systems occurs when
the PV inverter does not disconnect
after the grid has tripped and continues
to provide power to the local load [10].
In the conventional case of a residential
electrical system cosupplied by a rooftop PV system, the grid disconnection
can appear as a result of a local equipment failure detected by the ground
fault protection or of an intentional disconnection of the line for servicing. In
both situations, if the PV inverter does
not disconnect, some hazardous situations can occur, such as
■ retripping the line with an out-of-
phase closure, damaging some
equipment
■ a safety hazard for utility line workers who assume that the lines are
de-energized.
To avoid these serious situations,
safety measures and detection methods
called anti-islanding requirements have
been required in standards. In IEEE 1574,
it is defined that after an unintentional is landing where the PV system continues
to energize a portion of the power system (island) through the point of common coupling, the PV system shall detect
the islanding and stop to energize the
area within 2 s [11].
Other Codes and Standards
Since PV applications are becoming more and more important, codes
and standards are continuously being
defined by international and national committees and governments to
achieve a safe, high-quality, and normalized operation. International standards
are normally defined by the International Electrotechnical Commission, the European Committee for Electrotechnical
Standardization, and the IEEE. Usually,
the governments define their specific
codes based on international standards
but take into account local factors
such as the geography, grid structure,
and ratio between the renewable energy and the total installed power. For
instance, VDE-AR-N 4105 is applied in
Germany as a local code defining the
power curtailment, frequency and voltage support, and dynamic grid support
(ride-through capability). It can be noticed that a national code can become
an international standard if it is successfully accepted by the international
commissions [12].
A summary of the current international standards for PV applications is
included in Table 1. For large-megawatt
PV power plants, the grid-connection requirements are in line with wind power
parks, connected to either distribution
or transmission levels. These codes
are mainly recommendations, and each
country adapts them to the specific
national operation and regulations. So
manufacturers slightly change the final