4.1. Regulation of Pesticide Uses
According to the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), approximately five billion pounds of
pesticides are used annually worldwide [2]. A cross-sectional study of pesticide handling practicesamong Cambodian farmers suggested that most of the pesticides used in agriculture belonged to the
World Health Organization (WHO) class I (extremely and highly dangerous) and class II (moderately
dangerous) categories [145]. Therefore, one immediate aim might be to reduce the use of WHO
Classes I and II pesticides, and replace these pesticides with less-toxic alternatives, especially in
developing countries [146]. In Europe and North America, government agencies, such as the EPA in
the US, the PMRA (Pest Management and Regulation Agency) in Canada, and the EEA (European
Environment Agency) in the European Union, control pesticide use quite closely. These government
agencies put forth policies and regulations on production and use of pesticides. Governmental
regulations for reducing the use of pesticides include mandate reduction through national policies and
enforcement [147,148], restricted registration [149] and taxation and attrition [150] on old toxic pesticides.
For example, in Canada, there have been substantial decreases in cosmetic use of pesticide
(from 25% to 11%) and hiring of lawn care companies (from 15% to 5%) after a province-wide ban of
cosmetic pesticides in 2009 in Ontario [151].
Osteen et al. suggested that societal values towards risks and benefits of pesticide uses could
profoundly affect pesticide policy and public preferences for reducing pesticide exposure so as to
maximize the efficiency of pesticide regulation and policy implementation [152]. Hernke et al. also
pointed out that scientific uncertainties and gaps in pesticide toxicology may hinder the generation of
new policy on restricting pesticide uses [153]. In addition, political priority in sustainable development
and efficient social connections between partnerships are critical for successful implementation of new
pesticide policy aiming to reducing pesticide uses and pesticide-related risk [1