Contents of educational administration programs have also been criticized for
resembling the social sciences more than the profession of education, and for the
lack of attempts to systematically integrate theory into practice, to generate
grounded theory or develop a theory of practice (Loredo and Carter, 1993). These
criticisms reached their zenith when Levine (2005) called for a complete reform of
university Ed.D. programs to prepare educational leaders. As a result of such
criticism, many universities found themselves under pressure to examine the
content and design of their administration preparation programs; and,
consequently, to start reform efforts focused on redesigning them (McCarthy,
1999). Despite these emerging reform efforts, these programs continue to be
criticized (Duke, 1992; Murphy and Hallinger, 1987; Milstein, 1999) in terms of
content and delivery method (Schmuck, 1992; Pinter, 1987).