2. Methods and data
2.1. Materials
2.1.1. Prova Brasil
“Prova Brasil” is a standardized test applied every two years to all 5th and 9th grade students from urban public schools. Prova Brasil tests
for competencies in Portuguese and Mathematics, and also collects information regarding the students and their parents. The state and city
Education departments decide which public schools within their district will participate in the test. Thus, although in Brazil non-university
level public schools are considered, on average, worse than private schools, it is reasonable to expect that the best public schools will be
selected for the exam.