The numerator in equation (5) consists of resource-employment expenditures to sales ratios, while the
denominator consists of tangible asset turnover ratios. These account ratios can be classified into four dimensions in
accordance with their respective activities (Figure 1): (1) the advertising expenses to sales ratio and accounts
receivable turnover both relate to the firm’s relationships with its customers; (2) the cost of goods sold to sales ratio,
inventory turnover, and accounts payable turnover denote the firm’s relationships with its suppliers; (3) the R&D
and the SG&A expenditures to sales ratios are indicators of the firm’s management of intellectual property
(Bharadwaj 2000); and (4) the depreciation to sales ratio and the fixed assets turnover represent the firm’s capability
in managing its physical assets.