planning action, taking action and reviewing outcomes and process and generating
understanding. A critical issue in presenting the narrative is to distinguish the events which
took place, about which there is no dispute, and the meanings attributed to these events.
This form of presentation gives the evidence in a factual and neutral manner. The action
researchers’ view of these events and their theorizing as to what these events are considered
to mean should not be mixed in with the telling of the story. By separating the
narrative from its interpretation, and by clearly stating which is story and which is interpretation,
action researchers are demonstrating how they are applying methodological rigor
to their approach. Combining narrative and interpretation leaves them open to the charge of
biased story-telling and makes it difficult for readers and editors to evaluate their work.
The questions in Table 1 challenge the narrative of the events of the project in terms of
being rigorous, reflective and relevant.
Reflection on the Narrative and Outcomes
Here action researchers present their understanding of the events of the narrative and their
theorizing as to what these events and outcomes are considered to mean and what their
judgments are about them. The outcomes, both intended and unintended, desired and
undesired, are judged in terms of the intention of the project to address the organization’s
needs and of the collaborative processes as rigorous, reflective and relevant in coming to
judgment about the project’s success or otherwise.
The Discussion/Extrapolation to a Broader Context and Articulation of Practical
Knowing
A key issue that requires attention is that the action research study must have implications
beyond the remit of the immediate project. As commented earlier, one of the most common
criticisms of published action research is that it lacks theory. In other words, action
research accounts tell a story but do not address issues of emergent theory and so contribute
to practical knowing. Action research projects are situation specific and do not
always aim to create universal knowledge. At the same time, extrapolation from a local
situation to more general situations is of utmost importance. Action researchers are not
claiming that every organization will behave as the one studied. But they can focus on
some significant factors, consideration of which is useful for other organizations, perhaps
like organizations or organizations undergoing similar types of change processes or offer a
contribution to methodology.
In terms of the Shani and Pasmore’s (1985) framework, action researchers need to
reflect on purpose and rationale for action and inquiry, context, methodology, design and
method of inquiry, narrative and outcomes, and so on. For example, on context, the
discussion may reflect on the impact it had on the project, especially if it changed or
evolved in some way. The discussion would reflect on the quality of relationship between
the researchers and organizational members and how the relationships need to be managed
through trust, collaboration, dialogue concerns for one another’s interest, equality of
influence, common language and so on. It would also reflect on the quality of the action
research process itself—how the collaborative processes of shared inquiry and action
worked. Finally the discussion would reflect on the outcomes of the project—what might
be sustainable (human, social, economic, ecological) and the development of self-help and
competencies out of the action and the creation of new knowledge from the inquiry.