One of the most popular typologies of participation is that developed by Arnstein.
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Arnstein (1965: 216-217) defines participation as the means by which citizens can induce
significant social reform which enables them to share the benefits of an affluent society.
She devised an eight-rung ladder comprising the following steps: manipulation, therapy,
informing, consultation, placation, partnership, delegated power, and citizen control. The
first two rungs are identified as „non-participation.‟ Levels three to five are described as
„degree of tokenism‟, in which consultation is the most essential factor to contribute to
legitimate participation. The last three rungs of the ladders are „levels of citizen power‟,
in which the degree of decision-making influence is increased.