phospholipids, cellular vehicles without key elements of
life, synthetic cells, synthetic bottom-up biology, the production
of whole cells, and genetically engineered machines; and
• Totally unknown: xeno cells, involving alternative biochemistry,
XNA (“alien” life), unknown amino acids, the rearrangement
of genes, the development of new ribosomes, xeno
organisms, and chemically modified organisms (CMOs).
Protocells, let alone xeno cells, are a possible source of infection.
Once established in the environment, there are no adequate
control mechanisms for these cells. National laws and international
agreements are meant to safeguard against the unintentional
liberation of new organisms. Scientists are agreed that a
biological parallel world will have to be preserved in enclaves and
protected by “genetic firewalls” [13].
Bioterrorists and developers of biological weapons may potentially
use synthetic biology. This particular threat is often known
by the remarkable euphemism, “dual use.” In the past, there have
been (benevolent) incidents of a deliberate increase in the virulence
of a cowpox strain, the emergence of a new infectious virus
in the production of a polio virus genome, and the deliberate lessening
of virulence in an inoculation drug against smallpox.
The 2004 A Synthetic Biohazard Non-Proliferation Proposal is
in need of international updating. Open-source biotechnology
makes it difficult to self-regulate the industry, or mitigate safety
and security concerns.