metabolism of glucose and certain lipids; in addition, it is considered
an essential trace element for the maintenance of an effective
protein metabolism in humans [2]. On the contrary, the CrVI toxic
and carcinogenic effects present are due to their strong oxidation
potential and their relatively small size, which enables them to
penetrate through biological cell membranes, providing damage to
macromolecules, proteins and DNA (DNA-Cr-DNA crosslinks). CrVI
inhibits the enzymatic sulfur uptake of the cell and is also harmful
to lungs, liver and kidneys [3].
Cr can enter the human body through breathing or drinking
water, and its level in the air, water and biological samples is
very low. Cr concentration in drinking water is generally less than
2 g L−1 [4]. The World Health Organization (WHO) states that the
guideline values of 50 g L−1 CrVI are considered to be too high as
compared to its genotoxicity, and the national health and nutrition
examination survey claims normal Cr levels found in the human
blood are 0.1–1.7 g L−1 and 0.24–1.8 g L−1 in urine [5]. CrVI compounds,
once inside the bloodstream, are actively transported into
red blood cells (RBC) via nonspecific anionic channels and then
rapidly reduced to CrIII which becomes bound to hemoglobin. Hexavalent
chromium (Cr(VI))is reduced intracellularly to Cr(V), Cr(IV)
and Cr(III) by ascorbate (Asc), cysteine and glutathione (GSH). These
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