An HRM practice can be measured in three different ways: by its presence (i.e. a dichotomous scale for
whether it is actually in effect, „yes‟ or „no‟), by its coverage (i.e. a continuous scale for the proportion of
the workforce covered by it), or by its intensity (i.e. a continuous scale for the degree to which an
individual employee is exposed to the practice or policy). The overwhelming majority relied only on
measures of presence. These are readily attainable and comparatively easy to analyse, but managers and
employee representatives often disagree considerably on the presence or otherwise of workplace
practices, let alone their effectiveness (Ichniowski et al. 1996). Huselid‟s study (1995) and Guest et al
(2003) are rare examples of use of coverage measures. We found rather fewer measures reflecting
intensity, an exception being Truss (2001: 1135) who asked employees whether, for example, they
received sufficient training to do their job. We found little attention paid to the quality of the
implementation of HRM as a necessary condition for its effectiveness. Although a handful of studies have
now examined the role of the HR function itself in terms of leadership and change delivery, the role of the
immediate line manager or supervisor in the actual enactment process (Purcell et al., 2003) is an
underdeveloped area