• Price reductions (tolls and car parks) for vehicles with high occupancies.
• Contracts for pollution rights. Under these contracts, firms limited to specific pollution totals
can distribute their pollution rights amongst their vehicle fleet and their other activities, and can
even sell only unused rights. This procedure can be easily applied only to large firms, but has
(to date) had only a marginal effect on transport.
• The "CAFE" procedures, whereby an average emission is set per vehicle for each constructor.
Barde and Button (1992) and Banister and Button (1992) have also analyzed the degree of
internalisation that exists in the transport policies of different OECD countries. From the information that
emerges, a few examples of the risks of regulatory measures that are poorly conceived or poorly managed can
be observed. Thus, in Athens (see Giaoutzi, in Barde and Button, 1992), the apparently drastic step taken to
ban the movement of one vehicle out of two has had only little effect on congestion and pollution. Similarly
in Germany, the reimbursement of workers' car expenses (see Rothengatter, in Barde and Button, 1992) has
been shown to have negative effects on the environment. Finally, the effects of the axle tax instituted in
France in 1970 to make heavy goods vehicle pay their social cost, have been completely wiped out by the fact
that the tax has not been revised since its creation (Lamune and Quinet, in Barde and Button, 1992).