Principle of operation[edit]
Visualisation of the spread of Townsend avalanches by means of UV photons. This mechanism allows a single ionising event to ionise all the gas surrounding the anode by triggering multiple avalanches.
Detection of higher energy gamma in a thick-walled tube. Secondary electrons generated in the wall can reach the fill gas to produce avalanches. Multiple avalanches omitted for clarity
The tube consists of a chamber filled with a low-pressure (~0.1 atm) inert gas. This contains two electrodes, between which there is a potential difference of several hundred volts. The walls of the tube are either metal or have their inside surface coated with a conductor to form the cathode, while the anode is a wire in the center of the chamber. When ionizing radiation strikes the tube, some molecules of the fill gas are ionized, either directly by the incident radiation or indirectly by means of secondary electrons produced in the walls of the tube. This creates positively charged ions and electrons, known as ion pairs, in the gas. The strong electric field created by the tube's electrodes accelerates the positive ions towards the cathode and the electrons towards the anode. Close to the anode in the "avalanche region" the electrons gain sufficient energy to ionize additional gas molecules and create a large number of electron avalanches which spread along the anode and effectively throughout the avalanche region. This is the "gas multiplication" effect which gives the tube its key characteristic of being able to produce a significant output pulse from a single ionising event.[4]
If there were to be only one avalanche per original ionising event, then the number of excited molecules would be in the order of 106 to 108. However the production of multiple avalanches results in an increased multiplication factor which can produce 109 to 1010 ion pairs.[4] The creation of multiple avalanches is due to the production of UV photons in the original avalanche, which are not affected by the electric field and move laterally to the axis of the anode to instigate further ionising events by collision with gas molecules. These collisions produce further avalanches, which in turn produce more photons, and thereby more avalanches in a chain reaction which spreads laterally through the fill gas, and envelops the anode wire. The accompanying diagram shows this graphically. The speed of propagation of the avalanches is typically 2–4 cm per microsecond, so that for common sizes of tubes the complete ionisation of the gas around the anode takes just a few microseconds.[4] This short, intense pulse of current can be measured as a count event in the form of a voltage pulse developed across an external electrical resistor. This can be in the order of volts; thus making further electronic processing simple.
The discharge is terminated by the collective effect of the positive ions created by the avalanches. These ions have lower mobility than the free electrons due to their higher mass and remain in the area of the anode wire. This creates a "space charge" which counteracts the electric field which is necessary for continued avalanche generation. For a particular tube geometry and operating voltage this termination always occurs when a certain number of avalanches have been created, therefore the pulses from the tube are always of the same magnitude regardless of the energy of the initiating particle. Consequently there is no radiation energy information in the pulses[4] which means the Geiger-Muller tube cannot be used to generate spectral information about the incident radiation.
Pressure of the fill gas is important in the generation of avalanches. Too low a pressure and the efficiency of interaction with incident radiation is reduced. Too high a pressure, and the “mean free path” for collisions between accelerated electrons and the fill gas is too small, and the electrons cannot gather enough energy between each collision to cause ionisation of the gas. The energy gained by electrons is proportional to the ratio “e/p”, where “e” is the electric field strength at that point in the gas, and “p” is the gas pressure.[4]
Types of Tube[edit]
Broadly, there are two main types of geiger tube construction.
End window type[edit]
Visualisation of Geiger tube of "end window" type
For alpha, low energy beta and low energy X-ray detection the usual form is a cylindrical end-window tube. This type has a window at one end covered in a thin material through which low-penetration radiation can easily pass. Mica is a commonly used material due to its low mass per unit area. The other end houses the electrical connection to the anode. The end window tube type is used for low penetration particle radiation.
Pancake tube[edit]
Pancake G-M tube, the circular concentric anode can clearly be seen.
The pancake tube is a form of end window tube which is specifically designed for use in alpha and beta contamination monitoring. It has roughly the same sensitivity to particles as the end window type, but has a flat annular shape so the largest window area can be utilised with a minimum of gas space. Like the cylindrical end window tube, mica is a commonly used window material due to its low mass per unit area. The anode is normally multi-wired in concentric circles so it extends fully throughout the gas space.
Windowless type[edit]
This general type is distinct from the dedicated end window type, but has two main sub-types, which use different radiation interaction mechanisms to obtain a count.
Thick walled[edit]
A selection of thick walled G-M tubes for gamma detection. The largest has an energy compensation ring; the others are not energy compensated
Used for high energy gamma detection, this type generally has an overall wall thickness of about 1-2mm of chrome steel. Because most high energy gamma photons will pass through the low density fill gas without interacting, the tube uses the interaction of photons on the molecules of the wall material to produce high energy secondary electrons within the wall. Some of these electrons are produced close enough to the inner wall of the tube to escape into the fill gas. As soon as this happens the electron drifts to the anode and an electron avalanche occurs as though the free electron had been created within the gas.[4] It is important to note that the avalanche is a secondary effect of a process that starts within the tube wall; not the effect of radiation directly on the gas itself.
Thin walled[edit]
Thin walled tubes are used for:
high energy beta detection, where the beta enters via the side of the tube and interacts directly with the gas, but the radiation has to be energetic enough to penetrate the tube wall. Low energy beta, which would penetrate an end window, would be stopped by the tube wall.
Low energy gamma and X-ray detection. The lower energy photons interact better with the fill gas so this design concentrates on increasing the volume of the fill gas by using a long thin walled tube and does not use the interaction of photons in the tube wall. The transition from thin walled to thick walled design takes place at the 300-400 KeV energy levels. Above these levels thick walled designs are used, and beneath these levels the direct gas ionisation effect is predominant.
Neutron detectors[edit]
G-M tubes will not detect neutrons since these do not ionise the gas. However, neutron-sensitive tubes can be produced which either have the inside of the tube coated with boron, or the tube contains boron trifluoride or helium-3 as the fill gas. The neutrons interact with the boron nuclei, producing alpha particles, or directly with the helium-3 nuclei producing hydrogen and tritium ions and electrons. These charged particles then trigger the normal avalanche process.
Gas mixtures[edit]
The main component is an inert gas such as helium, argon or neon, in some cases in a Penning mixture, and a quench gas of 5-10% of an organic vapor or a halogen gas to prevent multiple pulsing.[4] The halogen G-M tube was invented by Sidney H. Liebson in 1947.[5] The halogen tube discharge mechanism takes advantage of a metastable state of the inert gas atom to more-readily ionize a halogen molecule than an organic vapor, enabling the tube to operate at much lower voltages, typically 400–600 volts instead of 900–1200 volts. This type of G-M tube is therefore by far the most common form now. It has a longer life than tubes quenched with organic compounds, because the halogen ions can recombine while the organic vapor is gradually destroyed by the discharge process (giving the latter a life of around 108 events).
Geiger plateau[edit]
The Geiger plateau is the voltage range in which the Geiger counter operates. If a G-M tube is exposed to a steady radiation source and the applied voltage is increased from zero, it follows the plot of ion current shown in the lead section of this article. In the "Geiger region" the gradient flattens; this is effectively the Geiger plateau.
Depending on the characteristics of the specific tube (manufacturer, size, gas type, etc.) the exact voltage range of the plateau will vary. In this plateau region, the potential difference in the counter is strong enough to allow the creation of multiple avalanches. Below the plateau the voltage is not high enough to cause complete discharge, and individual Townsend avalanches are the result; the tube acting as a proportional counter. If the applied voltage is higher than the plateau's, a continuous glow discharge is formed and the tube cannot detect radiation.
It is normal to operate the tube in the middle of the plateau so that variations in the voltage to the tube do not take it out of the Geiger operating region.
The plateau has a slight slope caused by increased sensitivity to low energy radiation, due to the increased voltage on the device. Normally when a particle enters the tube
Principle of operation[edit]
Visualisation of the spread of Townsend avalanches by means of UV photons. This mechanism allows a single ionising event to ionise all the gas surrounding the anode by triggering multiple avalanches.
Detection of higher energy gamma in a thick-walled tube. Secondary electrons generated in the wall can reach the fill gas to produce avalanches. Multiple avalanches omitted for clarity
The tube consists of a chamber filled with a low-pressure (~0.1 atm) inert gas. This contains two electrodes, between which there is a potential difference of several hundred volts. The walls of the tube are either metal or have their inside surface coated with a conductor to form the cathode, while the anode is a wire in the center of the chamber. When ionizing radiation strikes the tube, some molecules of the fill gas are ionized, either directly by the incident radiation or indirectly by means of secondary electrons produced in the walls of the tube. This creates positively charged ions and electrons, known as ion pairs, in the gas. The strong electric field created by the tube's electrodes accelerates the positive ions towards the cathode and the electrons towards the anode. Close to the anode in the "avalanche region" the electrons gain sufficient energy to ionize additional gas molecules and create a large number of electron avalanches which spread along the anode and effectively throughout the avalanche region. This is the "gas multiplication" effect which gives the tube its key characteristic of being able to produce a significant output pulse from a single ionising event.[4]
If there were to be only one avalanche per original ionising event, then the number of excited molecules would be in the order of 106 to 108. However the production of multiple avalanches results in an increased multiplication factor which can produce 109 to 1010 ion pairs.[4] The creation of multiple avalanches is due to the production of UV photons in the original avalanche, which are not affected by the electric field and move laterally to the axis of the anode to instigate further ionising events by collision with gas molecules. These collisions produce further avalanches, which in turn produce more photons, and thereby more avalanches in a chain reaction which spreads laterally through the fill gas, and envelops the anode wire. The accompanying diagram shows this graphically. The speed of propagation of the avalanches is typically 2–4 cm per microsecond, so that for common sizes of tubes the complete ionisation of the gas around the anode takes just a few microseconds.[4] This short, intense pulse of current can be measured as a count event in the form of a voltage pulse developed across an external electrical resistor. This can be in the order of volts; thus making further electronic processing simple.
The discharge is terminated by the collective effect of the positive ions created by the avalanches. These ions have lower mobility than the free electrons due to their higher mass and remain in the area of the anode wire. This creates a "space charge" which counteracts the electric field which is necessary for continued avalanche generation. For a particular tube geometry and operating voltage this termination always occurs when a certain number of avalanches have been created, therefore the pulses from the tube are always of the same magnitude regardless of the energy of the initiating particle. Consequently there is no radiation energy information in the pulses[4] which means the Geiger-Muller tube cannot be used to generate spectral information about the incident radiation.
Pressure of the fill gas is important in the generation of avalanches. Too low a pressure and the efficiency of interaction with incident radiation is reduced. Too high a pressure, and the “mean free path” for collisions between accelerated electrons and the fill gas is too small, and the electrons cannot gather enough energy between each collision to cause ionisation of the gas. The energy gained by electrons is proportional to the ratio “e/p”, where “e” is the electric field strength at that point in the gas, and “p” is the gas pressure.[4]
Types of Tube[edit]
Broadly, there are two main types of geiger tube construction.
End window type[edit]
Visualisation of Geiger tube of "end window" type
For alpha, low energy beta and low energy X-ray detection the usual form is a cylindrical end-window tube. This type has a window at one end covered in a thin material through which low-penetration radiation can easily pass. Mica is a commonly used material due to its low mass per unit area. The other end houses the electrical connection to the anode. The end window tube type is used for low penetration particle radiation.
Pancake tube[edit]
Pancake G-M tube, the circular concentric anode can clearly be seen.
The pancake tube is a form of end window tube which is specifically designed for use in alpha and beta contamination monitoring. It has roughly the same sensitivity to particles as the end window type, but has a flat annular shape so the largest window area can be utilised with a minimum of gas space. Like the cylindrical end window tube, mica is a commonly used window material due to its low mass per unit area. The anode is normally multi-wired in concentric circles so it extends fully throughout the gas space.
Windowless type[edit]
This general type is distinct from the dedicated end window type, but has two main sub-types, which use different radiation interaction mechanisms to obtain a count.
Thick walled[edit]
A selection of thick walled G-M tubes for gamma detection. The largest has an energy compensation ring; the others are not energy compensated
Used for high energy gamma detection, this type generally has an overall wall thickness of about 1-2mm of chrome steel. Because most high energy gamma photons will pass through the low density fill gas without interacting, the tube uses the interaction of photons on the molecules of the wall material to produce high energy secondary electrons within the wall. Some of these electrons are produced close enough to the inner wall of the tube to escape into the fill gas. As soon as this happens the electron drifts to the anode and an electron avalanche occurs as though the free electron had been created within the gas.[4] It is important to note that the avalanche is a secondary effect of a process that starts within the tube wall; not the effect of radiation directly on the gas itself.
Thin walled[edit]
Thin walled tubes are used for:
high energy beta detection, where the beta enters via the side of the tube and interacts directly with the gas, but the radiation has to be energetic enough to penetrate the tube wall. Low energy beta, which would penetrate an end window, would be stopped by the tube wall.
Low energy gamma and X-ray detection. The lower energy photons interact better with the fill gas so this design concentrates on increasing the volume of the fill gas by using a long thin walled tube and does not use the interaction of photons in the tube wall. The transition from thin walled to thick walled design takes place at the 300-400 KeV energy levels. Above these levels thick walled designs are used, and beneath these levels the direct gas ionisation effect is predominant.
Neutron detectors[edit]
G-M tubes will not detect neutrons since these do not ionise the gas. However, neutron-sensitive tubes can be produced which either have the inside of the tube coated with boron, or the tube contains boron trifluoride or helium-3 as the fill gas. The neutrons interact with the boron nuclei, producing alpha particles, or directly with the helium-3 nuclei producing hydrogen and tritium ions and electrons. These charged particles then trigger the normal avalanche process.
Gas mixtures[edit]
The main component is an inert gas such as helium, argon or neon, in some cases in a Penning mixture, and a quench gas of 5-10% of an organic vapor or a halogen gas to prevent multiple pulsing.[4] The halogen G-M tube was invented by Sidney H. Liebson in 1947.[5] The halogen tube discharge mechanism takes advantage of a metastable state of the inert gas atom to more-readily ionize a halogen molecule than an organic vapor, enabling the tube to operate at much lower voltages, typically 400–600 volts instead of 900–1200 volts. This type of G-M tube is therefore by far the most common form now. It has a longer life than tubes quenched with organic compounds, because the halogen ions can recombine while the organic vapor is gradually destroyed by the discharge process (giving the latter a life of around 108 events).
Geiger plateau[edit]
The Geiger plateau is the voltage range in which the Geiger counter operates. If a G-M tube is exposed to a steady radiation source and the applied voltage is increased from zero, it follows the plot of ion current shown in the lead section of this article. In the "Geiger region" the gradient flattens; this is effectively the Geiger plateau.
Depending on the characteristics of the specific tube (manufacturer, size, gas type, etc.) the exact voltage range of the plateau will vary. In this plateau region, the potential difference in the counter is strong enough to allow the creation of multiple avalanches. Below the plateau the voltage is not high enough to cause complete discharge, and individual Townsend avalanches are the result; the tube acting as a proportional counter. If the applied voltage is higher than the plateau's, a continuous glow discharge is formed and the tube cannot detect radiation.
It is normal to operate the tube in the middle of the plateau so that variations in the voltage to the tube do not take it out of the Geiger operating region.
The plateau has a slight slope caused by increased sensitivity to low energy radiation, due to the increased voltage on the device. Normally when a particle enters the tube
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