INTRODUCTION
The second stage of labor is often the most stressful part of the childbearing process for the woman and fetus, and consequently for the provider. Differences of opinion between providers, in combination with a dearth of high-quality evidence, make practice decisions in the second stage particularly challenging. Indeed, the benefits and risks of various interventions to assist women during pushing have been de bated for centuries This review of the evidence for management of the second stage of labor- including maternal positions, delayed pushing, directed or coached pushing, time limits, and techniques for preventing perineal trauma-is intended to help midwives and other maternity care providers weigh the risks and benefits of these interventions in order to counsel women and provide them with optimal care.
maternal choice of positions. Perineal Supine perineal massage with a lubricant, and controlling the rate of fetal extension during crowning may prevent severe perineal trauma at birth. may be positioning is not recommended. Upright positions and directed pushing can shorten the time from onset of second stage to birth and indicated in certain situations, although directed pushing has some associated ri If the fetus is in the occiput posterior position, immediate pushing is not recommended, and manual rotation can be effective in correcting the malposition. Women should be informed of the pot after al analgesia on labor progress. Consultation and intervention to expedite birth may be indicated when birth is not imminent for 2 hours of active pushing, or 4 hours complete for nulliparous women; or one hour of pushing, or 2 hours complete dilatation, women. Each woman should be d second individually assessed and apprised of the potential risks to her and her fetus of a prolonged stage of labor, and some women may choose to continue pushing beyond these time limits J Midwifery Womens Health 2014;59:264-276 (o 2014 by the American College of Nurse Midwives. Keywords: birth, childbirth, review, second stage labo the lithotomy position was widely used in the United S TRODUCTION home to hospital birth, th e second stage of labor is often the most stressful part secondary to the shift from of forceps use. Althou of of twilight sleep, and high rates childbearing process for the woman and fetus, and con sisted vaginal births are now much less common,