performance. Some of the more usual causes of differences in group and organizational effectiveness are also noted in Figure 1.3. 17 These and other potential causes of effectiveness are discussed at length in subsequent chapters. But the reality of organizational life is that there are few unambiguous cause-and-effect relationships. In most instances, evaluation judgments must take into account multiple causes and circumstances. 18 How then can managers increase and maintain individual, group, and organizational effectiveness? The following section addresses this question by describing the nature of managerial work.