Each dimension is investigated by several metrics. Earnings management is analysed by the level of abnormal working capital accruals (De Fond and Park,
2001) and income smoothing (Barth et al., 2008); timely loss recognition is
examined on the basis of the changes in earnings model (Basu, 1997) and the
accrual-cash flow model (Ball and Shivakumar, 2005).