Treating Acute Pain in the Hospitalized Patient
Source:
The Nurse Practitioner
August 2012, Volume 37 Number 8 , p 22 - 30 [FREE]
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Author
• Yvonne D'Arcy MS, CRNP, CNS
Abstract
AbstractMany hospitalized patients report moderate-to-severe pain despite the use of epidural or patient-controlled analgesia. This article will explore the use of multimodal options for analgesia in hospitalized patients and focus on a difficult-to-treat acute pain condition, abdominal pain.
Keywords
abdominal pain, acute pain, epidural analgesia, opioids, patient-controlled analgesia
Article Content
Article Content
Pain is defined as "an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage."1 Acute pain is defined as pain that lasts for a short period of time, alerts the body that it has been injured, and is the result of tissue injury.1 Chronic or persistent pain is pain that lasts beyond the normal healing period, does not have a meaning, and is often accompanied by depression.2Some patients with acute pain may have underlying chronic pain, which makes the acute pain more difficult to treat.
Figure. No caption available.
The source of acute pain may be a symptom of a variety of conditions: orthopedic conditions such as low back pain and injuries, headaches, surgery, or abdominal pain. Most people look into their medicine chests for over-the-counter medications as a way to self-treat minor episodes of acute pain, and have several types of over-the-counter analgesics and pain relievers available to self-treat the pain.
When acute pain becomes severe, patients seek help from healthcare providers at a clinic, ED, or hospital. Usually the treatment of mild-to-moderate level acute pain involves an analgesic medication to relieve pain, and other interventions such as cold packs, wraps, casts, immobilizers, or slings.2 For more severe acute pain from trauma or surgery, hospitalization and more complex methods are used such as oral and I.V. opioid analgesics, nerve blocks using local anesthetics, patient-controlled analgesia (PCA), or epidural catheters.
The source of pain
The transmission of the sensation of pain requires many different mechanisms activated within the peripheral nervous system and central nervous system.3 Additionally, to transmit a sensation such as acute pain, a number of complicated inhibitory and excitatory processes including the production and utilization of neurotransmitters, cytokines, glutamate, substance P to facilitate pain and enkephalins, serotonin, norepinephrine, and gamma-amino butyric acid for inhibition must be activated.4,5 The transmission of acute pain is very complex with many different types of substances produced and utilized to help or block pain transmission while many different parts of cells and tissues are also involved.
Despite or perhaps because of the complexity of the sensation of pain, it is extremely important that acute pain be effectively treated. If acute pain is allowed to persist, it may produce a chronic pain syndrome such as complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) that is much more difficult to treat. One European survey estimated chronic pain resulting from acute pain was approximately 20%, with trauma and surgical patients accounting for 15% of this number.6
The development of a chronic pain syndrome for unrelieved or untreated acute pain is thought to involve three physiologic maladaptive processes:
* peripheral sensitization
* central sensitization
* descending modulation of the pain stimulus.7
In order to better understand how this process occurs in acute pain after tissue injury, studies have begun to focus on:
* Better evaluation of acute pain resolution using the patient's individual pain trajectories.
* Assessment of endogenous pain modulating processes.
* The patient's psychological flexibility when faced with threat of pain.8
Overall, it is known that acute pain requires a number of complex, physiologically based conditions to work together to either promote the pain stimulus or inhibit the transmission. Pain medications have been developed that are aimed at blocking the substance production or process in order to relieve pain. Despite this knowledge, practitioners are still searching for the best ways to treat this pain, although medication and interventional options are most commonly used to relieve pain. This article will focus on the assessment and multimodal treatment options for providing analgesia for acute pain. Once a common acute pain condition, abdominal pain will also be discussed.
Prevalence of acute pain
A 2003 survey found that of 73 million patients who underwent surgery, 80% experienced pain and 86% experienced pain that was moderate, severe, or extreme after surgery.9 Prior to the surgery, 59% of these patients indicated that postoperative pain was a concern.9 It is important to note that 70% of all surgeries are now performed in ambulatory care centers, where quick and effective pain management is a necessity.9
In EDs, acute pain is a common complaint. In a Midwestern hospital ED, a chart review for 1,665 visits during a 7-day period revealed that 61% of the charts documented pain and in 52% of the charts, pain was the chief complaint.10 In cases where the patient is only seen briefly, efficient and effective pain management is a must.
A French study focusing on patients in a mobile ICU found that they had significant pain even prior to being seen in the ED. Of the 2,279 patients seen, 947 had acute pain with 64% reporting severe pain.11 The most painful reports were from trauma or cardiac pain. When analgesics were administered to these patients, 51% reported pain relief.11
Readmissions for uncontrolled pain are becoming a focus for hospitals whose resources are stretched. Uncontrolled pain is the most common reason for readmission in the first week after surgery.12 Pain accounts for 36% of all unanticipated admissions and readmissions in same-day surgery centers with 33% of patients having had an orthopedic procedure.13 It is important that acute pain be well managed, not only to promote good patient care but to also decrease the possibility of readmission for uncontrolled pain.
Pain assessment
A pain intensity rating scale with numeric ratings of pain intensity, ranging from 0 no pain to 10 worst possible pain, is normally sufficient to assess acute pain (see Examples of pain intensity scales). This allows the practitioner to establish a baseline of pain and track pain relief when medications are given.
The Joint Commission recommendations state that pain needs to be assessed on admission to the hospital and at regular intervals. There is also a requirement that pain intensity be reassessed after patients are medicated for pain to determine if the medication has relieved the pain. A clinically significant decrease in pain ratings is considered to be 2 points on the numeric rating scale or a 30% overall decrease.2
There are a group of pain scales for assessment in the pediatric patient population including the Wong Baker FACES scale using six facial representations of pain. Other scales include the use of activity of the legs, facial indicators of pain, or in infants, oxygen consumption combined with other pain indicators. For adult patients who cannot self-report pain, there are a number of behavioral pain scales for both medical and intensive care settings. These scales use muscle tension, facial expression, consolability, or verbalizations to assess for pain. Using the correct scale for the patient population being assessed is important for the process to be successful.
Physiologic indicators such as increased pulse, increased respiratory rate should not be used to assess pain. These differences in physiologic response may be the result of anxiety, fear, or other psychological responses to pain and are difficult to isolate to the specific pain stimulus.23
Medications and interventional options for multimodal analgesia
Although multimodal analgesia combining medications or interventions is recommended for treating acute pain in hospitalized patients, a recent survey indicates that it is significantly underused.14 In a survey of anesthesiologists, less than 25% indicated that they used more than two non-opioid medications to control postoperative pain. When considering the benefits of non-opioid multimodal analgesia, the anesthesiologist survey respondents indicated that the most significant benefits were:
* reduced opioid use-46%
* increased patient satisfaction-26.8%
* decreased postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV)-17%
* decreased length of stay-9.8%.14
The results of this survey indicate that surgeons do not oppose anesthesiologists using non-opioid multimodal analgesia; it just is not frequently implemented in the postoperative setting. In order to achieve optimal pain relief for acute pain, different types of medications and interventional techniques are necessary.
Medications
Medications for acute pain include both non-opioids and opioids. When selecting medications, it is important to consider the patient's ability to continue the medications as an outpatient. Some insurance plans limit the use of extended-release medications or co-analgesics, so knowing which medications the patient's insurance plan will cover can help avoid costly co-pays and step management.
Non-opioid medications and co-analgesics
Non-opioid medications include acetaminophen and other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Co-analgesics include antidepressants, antiepileptic medications, muscle relaxants, and targeted topical analgesics. For acute pain, the alpha 2-ligand d
รักษาอาการปวดเฉียบพลันในผู้ป่วย Hospitalizedที่มา:แพทย์พยาบาล2555 สิงหาคม เล่มที่ 37 หมายเลข 8, p 22-30 [ฟรี]เข้าร่วม NursingCenterto เข้าถึงบทความนี้และห้องสมุดทั้งหมดของบทความที่ได้รับค่าจ้างอย่างต่อเนื่องได้รับชั่วโมง 2.0 ติดต่อบทความนี้มีส่วนการศึกษาต่อเนื่องเชื่อมโยงต้นทุนสำหรับ CE: $21.95 หมดอายุ 31 สิงหาคม 2016.Go รายละเอียด CEผู้เขียน•แวน D'Arcy MS, CRNP, CNSบทคัดย่อAbstractMany ที่พักผู้ป่วยรายงานความเจ็บปวดปานกลางการรุนแรงแม้ มีการใช้ หรือ ควบคุมผู้ป่วยฉีดบิวพรี analgesia บทความนี้จะสำรวจการใช้ตัวเลือกทุก analgesia ในผู้ป่วยพักและผ่อนคลายเงื่อนไขยากการรักษาอาการปวดเฉียบพลัน อาการปวดท้องคำสำคัญอาการปวดท้อง อาการปวดเฉียบพลัน ฉีดบิวพรี analgesia, opioids, analgesia ควบคุมผู้ป่วย เนื้อหาบทความเนื้อหาบทความ ความเจ็บปวดถูกกำหนดให้เป็น "การรับความรู้สึก และอารมณ์มากกกกเกี่ยวข้องกับเนื้อเยื่อที่แท้จริง หรืออาจเกิดความเสียหาย หรืออธิบายในแง่ของความเสียหายดังกล่าว" อาการปวดเฉียบพลัน 1 กำหนดเป็นความเจ็บปวดที่ยากลืมในระยะสั้น ๆ เวลา แจ้งเตือนร่างกายที่บาดเจ็บ และเป็นผลของเนื้อเยื่อ injury.1 เรื้อรัง หรือปวดแบบ ปวดที่เวลาเกินรอบระยะเวลาการรักษาปกติ ไม่มีความหมายที่ และมักจะตามมา โดย depression.2Some ผู้ป่วยที่มีอาการปวดเฉียบพลัน อาจมีต้นอาการปวดเรื้อรัง ซึ่งทำให้อาการปวดเฉียบพลันยากต่อการรักษา รูป ไม่มีคำอธิบาย แหล่งที่มาของอาการปวดเฉียบพลันอาจมีอาการหลากหลายเงื่อนไข: เงื่อนไขศัลยกรรมกระดูกและข้อเช่นปวดหลัง และอาการบาดเจ็บ ปวดหัว ผ่าตัด หรือปวดท้องได้ คนส่วนใหญ่มองเข้าไปในทรวงอกของยาสำหรับยายาเป็นวิธีการรักษาตนเองตอนย่อยของอาการปวดเฉียบพลัน และมีหลายประเภทของยายาแก้ปวดและปวดปวันเพื่อรักษาอาการปวดด้วยตนเอง เมื่ออาการปวดเฉียบพลันรุนแรง ผู้ป่วยค้นหาความช่วยเหลือจากผู้ให้บริการสุขภาพที่คลินิก ED หรือโรงพยาบาล โดยปกติการรักษาอาการปวดเฉียบพลันไมลด์ปานกลางระดับเกี่ยวข้องกับการเป็นยาระงับปวดเพื่อบรรเทาอาการปวด และงานอื่น ๆ ชุดเย็น ห่อ casts, immobilizers หรือ slings.2 สำหรับอาการปวดเฉียบพลันที่รุนแรงมากขึ้นจากการบาดเจ็บ หรือผ่าตัด โรงพยาบาล และวิธีการซับซ้อนจะใช้ปาก และยาแก้ปวด opioid I.V. บล็อกเส้นประสาทใช้ anesthetics ภายใน ผู้ป่วยควบคุม analgesia (PCA), หรือฉีดบิวพรี cathetersแหล่งที่มาของความเจ็บปวด กลไกต่าง ๆ มากมายที่เรียกใช้ภายในระบบประสาทรอบนอกและศูนย์กลางประสาท system.3 นอกจากนี้ การส่งผ่านความรู้สึกเช่นอาการปวดเฉียบพลัน จำนวนซับซ้อน excitatory และลิปกลอสไขกระบวนการรวมทั้งการผลิตและการใช้ประโยชน์ของ neurotransmitters, cytokines, glutamate สาร P จะช่วยความเจ็บปวด และ enkephalins, serotonin, norepinephrine ต้องการส่งความรู้สึกเจ็บปวด และแกมมาอะมิโนกรด butyric สำหรับยับยั้งต้อง activated.4 , 5 การส่งผ่านความเจ็บปวดเฉียบพลันมีความซับซ้อนมากกับสารผลิต และใช้ประโยชน์ ไปช่วยบล็อกส่งความเจ็บปวดในขณะที่ในส่วนต่าง ๆ ของเซลล์ชนิดต่าง ๆ และยังเกี่ยวข้องกับเนื้อเยื่อ แม้มี หรืออาจเป็น เพราะความซับซ้อนของการปวด มันเป็นสิ่งสำคัญมากที่ถือว่าความเจ็บปวดเฉียบพลันได้อย่างมีประสิทธิภาพ ถ้าอาการปวดเฉียบพลันได้รับอนุญาตต่อไป มันอาจผลิตเป็นกลุ่มอาการปวดเรื้อรังเช่นอาการเจ็บปวดความซับซ้อน (CRPS) ซึ่งเป็นการยากมากที่จะรักษา สำรวจยุโรปหนึ่งประมาณประมาณ 20% บาดเจ็บและผู้ป่วยผ่าตัดบัญชี 15% ของ number.6 นี้มีอาการปวดเรื้อรังที่เกิดจากอาการปวดเฉียบพลัน การพัฒนาของอาการปวดเรื้อรังสำหรับอาการปวดเฉียบพลันไป หรือไม่ถูกรักษาเป็นความคิดที่เกี่ยวข้องกับกระบวน maladaptive physiologic สาม: * sensitization อุปกรณ์ต่อพ่วง * เซ็นทรัล sensitization จากเอ็ม stimulus.7 ความเจ็บปวด In order to better understand how this process occurs in acute pain after tissue injury, studies have begun to focus on: * Better evaluation of acute pain resolution using the patient's individual pain trajectories. * Assessment of endogenous pain modulating processes. * The patient's psychological flexibility when faced with threat of pain.8 Overall, it is known that acute pain requires a number of complex, physiologically based conditions to work together to either promote the pain stimulus or inhibit the transmission. Pain medications have been developed that are aimed at blocking the substance production or process in order to relieve pain. Despite this knowledge, practitioners are still searching for the best ways to treat this pain, although medication and interventional options are most commonly used to relieve pain. This article will focus on the assessment and multimodal treatment options for providing analgesia for acute pain. Once a common acute pain condition, abdominal pain will also be discussed.Prevalence of acute pain A 2003 survey found that of 73 million patients who underwent surgery, 80% experienced pain and 86% experienced pain that was moderate, severe, or extreme after surgery.9 Prior to the surgery, 59% of these patients indicated that postoperative pain was a concern.9 It is important to note that 70% of all surgeries are now performed in ambulatory care centers, where quick and effective pain management is a necessity.9 In EDs, acute pain is a common complaint. In a Midwestern hospital ED, a chart review for 1,665 visits during a 7-day period revealed that 61% of the charts documented pain and in 52% of the charts, pain was the chief complaint.10 In cases where the patient is only seen briefly, efficient and effective pain management is a must. A French study focusing on patients in a mobile ICU found that they had significant pain even prior to being seen in the ED. Of the 2,279 patients seen, 947 had acute pain with 64% reporting severe pain.11 The most painful reports were from trauma or cardiac pain. When analgesics were administered to these patients, 51% reported pain relief.11 Readmissions for uncontrolled pain are becoming a focus for hospitals whose resources are stretched. Uncontrolled pain is the most common reason for readmission in the first week after surgery.12 Pain accounts for 36% of all unanticipated admissions and readmissions in same-day surgery centers with 33% of patients having had an orthopedic procedure.13 It is important that acute pain be well managed, not only to promote good patient care but to also decrease the possibility of readmission for uncontrolled pain.Pain assessment A pain intensity rating scale with numeric ratings of pain intensity, ranging from 0 no pain to 10 worst possible pain, is normally sufficient to assess acute pain (see Examples of pain intensity scales). This allows the practitioner to establish a baseline of pain and track pain relief when medications are given. The Joint Commission recommendations state that pain needs to be assessed on admission to the hospital and at regular intervals. There is also a requirement that pain intensity be reassessed after patients are medicated for pain to determine if the medication has relieved the pain. A clinically significant decrease in pain ratings is considered to be 2 points on the numeric rating scale or a 30% overall decrease.2 There are a group of pain scales for assessment in the pediatric patient population including the Wong Baker FACES scale using six facial representations of pain. Other scales include the use of activity of the legs, facial indicators of pain, or in infants, oxygen consumption combined with other pain indicators. For adult patients who cannot self-report pain, there are a number of behavioral pain scales for both medical and intensive care settings. These scales use muscle tension, facial expression, consolability, or verbalizations to assess for pain. Using the correct scale for the patient population being assessed is important for the process to be successful. Physiologic indicators such as increased pulse, increased respiratory rate should not be used to assess pain. These differences in physiologic response may be the result of anxiety, fear, or other psychological responses to pain and are difficult to isolate to the specific pain stimulus.23Medications and interventional options for multimodal analgesia Although multimodal analgesia combining medications or interventions is recommended for treating acute pain in hospitalized patients, a recent survey indicates that it is significantly underused.14 In a survey of anesthesiologists, less than 25% indicated that they used more than two non-opioid medications to control postoperative pain. When considering the benefits of non-opioid multimodal analgesia, the anesthesiologist survey respondents indicated that the most significant benefits were: * reduced opioid use-46% * increased patient satisfaction-26.8% * decreased postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV)-17% * decreased length of stay-9.8%.14 The results of this survey indicate that surgeons do not oppose anesthesiologists using non-opioid multimodal analgesia; it just is not frequently implemented in the postoperative setting. In order to achieve optimal pain relief for acute pain, different types of medications and interventional techniques are necessary.Medications Medications for acute pain include both non-opioids and opioids. When selecting medications, it is important to consider the patient's ability to continue the medications as an outpatient. Some insurance plans limit the use of extended-release medications or co-analgesics, so knowing which medications the patient's insurance plan will cover can help avoid costly co-pays and step management.Non-opioid medications and co-analgesics Non-opioid medications include acetaminophen and other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Co-analgesics include antidepressants, antiepileptic medications, muscle relaxants, and targeted topical analgesics. For acute pain, the alpha 2-ligand d
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