Ownership structure: we hypothesise that smoothing is negatively associated with the degree of outside ownership concentration. This tests the early smoothing studies' argument that the incentive to smooth is largely confined to firms with diffuse share ownership, i.e. manager-controlled firms. It has become clear, however, that a single variable may not capture the full effects of ownership structure, especially the impact of significant managerial ownership (Hunt, 1986). To overcome this possible limitation, we therefore also include a managerial ownership variable which captures two offsetting effects. First, as managerial ownership increases, the incentives of managers and outside shareholders become more closely aligned (Niehaus, 1989), and there is less incentive for wealth transferring activities. This suggests a negative association between smoothing and the level of managerial ownership. Second, however, as managerial ownership increases, the managerial labour market and the market for corporate control become less effective means by which managers are forced towards value-maximising decisions. This is because a manager who owns a significant proportion of the firm's equity often has sufficient voting power to guarantee future employment (Nforck et al., 1988, p. 294). In the face of managerial incentives to smooth, an increase in managerial discretion can be expected to result in greater smoothing. The direct wealth effects of any increases in share values (achieved by smoothing) are also suggestive of a positive association. A priori, it is not clear which effect will dominate.