Table 3 presents the grade distribution of the six classes under study. The
observed and expected frequencies for student grades are shown in Table 4. The
single student with a grade of Incomplete in the face-to-face class of spring 2012
has been eliminated from this analysis. A chi-square test of independence leads to
a statistic of 8.16 (p-value .32). A separate chi-square test of independence by
eliminating the grade F generates a statistic of 6.51 (p-value .37). Therefore, we
cannot reject the null hypothesis: Learning effectiveness as measured by student
grades is independent of the mode of instruction.