3.2. Variable measurement
3.2.1. Examination performance
Prior studies reflect various approaches to measuring student learning outcomes. Consistent with the approach adopted by several of these prior studies, we measure learning outcomes based on assessment performance (for example, see Dowling et al., 2003; Michlitsch & Sidle, 2002). We use the acronym TOTALEXAM to represent our dependant variable,
which is the raw, numerical score achieved by CM students in the 2 h, closed book exam held at the conclusion of the semester.