terms of increasing transfer of training, lessening the time needed to learn tasks, and enhancing trainee engagement in the learning
process (e.g., Aggarwal et al., 2007; Hays, Jacobs, Prince, & Salas, 1992; Salas et al., 2005).
In recent years, companies have used gamification to increase trainee engagement, learning, and the perceived ease of use of
information systems. Gamification can be defined as the use of video game thinking, and game mechanics in non-game contexts
(e.g., e-training) (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamification retrieved June 13, 2014). A review of recent research on gamification revealed
it provides positive effects, but these effects are dependent on the context and the characteristics of users (Hamari, Koivisto, &
Sarsa, 2014). As a result, additional research is needed to examine the effectiveness of gamification.
8.3. Trainee characteristics
Consistent with traditional training settings, research on e-learning environments identified several trainee characteristics that
can influence e-learning outcomes. For example, one study found that trainees' computer experience was positively related to
post-training test scores in e-learning environments (Brown, 2001). In addition, other studies found that trainees' performance or
mastery orientation was positively related to learning processes and outcomes (Brown, 2001; Orvis et al., 2009). In addition, selfregulated
learning strategies (e.g., intentional awareness and regulation of cognitive processes) were associated positively with training
motivation, motivation, and learning outcomes (Johnson et al., 2009; Wan, Compeau, & Haggerty, 2012).
Furthermore, some researchers suggested that personality characteristics are related to the effectiveness of e-learning
technologies (Orvis et al., 2011; Piccoli et al., 2001). For example, individual self-efficacy and computer self-efficacy were found to
be associated positively with learning outcomes including performance, trainee satisfaction, and utility judgments (e.g., Johnson
et al., 2008, 2009; Marakas, Yi, & Johnson, 1998).
9. Limitations of current approaches to e-training and future directions
Overall, there has been considerable research on e-learning, and we have more information about its effectiveness than that of
many other eHR processes. Taken together the research reviewed here indicated that regardless of the type of technology,
e-training effectiveness depends largely on opportunities for trainees' to (a) maintain control over the learning process,
(b) practice, (c) interact with others, and (d) obtain feedback (e.g., Salas et al., 2005). Studies also revealed that trainees prefer
face-to-face training over e-learning because it increases the opportunities for communication and interpersonal interaction
(Masie, 2001; Phillips et al., 2000). In spite of these findings, research indicated that many e-learning methods are still limited because
they are less likely to engage trainees in the learning process, and do not always give them opportunities for interpersonal interaction,
practice, or feedback.
In view of this latter finding, some researchers argued that organizations using e-learning should adopt a blended approach, or incorporate
technologies that increase opportunities for interpersonal interaction and communication among participants (Salas et al.,
2005). Moreover, we believe that some of the new technologies such as Web 2.0 will enhance the effectiveness of e-training because
they allow for greater levels of interpersonal interaction than current ones. For instance, in the future, organizations are likely to use
virtual environments, virtual simulations, gamification, knowledge repositories, and crowdsourcing to improve the effectiveness of
e-training. However, research is needed to assess the degree to which these methods help organizations enhance employees' knowledge,
skills and abilities.
Furthermore, current e-training methods are often viewed as inflexible, and do not always include provide trainees with control.
As a result, we believe that the increased use of mobile technologies, virtual environments, and gamification should enhance trainee
engagement in the learning process, and increase opportunities for them to practice or gain feedback. For instance, research suggested
that over 70% of employees want to bring their own mobile devices to work (Forrester, 2012), and trainees view these technologies as
more flexible than traditional desk top computers (Gartner, 2012). Thus, the use of new technologies including virtual environments
and mobile devices may improve the effectiveness and acceptance of e-learning methods.
There are two main areas where virtual environments can enhance the e-learning process. The first of these is the use of
simulations using virtual reality. Virtual Reality has been defined as “a computer technology that enables users to view or ‘immerse’
themselves in an alternate world (Aguinis et al., 2001). The goal of virtual reality training is for the trainee to become immersed in and
interact with the virtual environment in such a way that the environment seems “real” to them. The elements of immersion and
interaction are extremely important in the learning process because they make the user feel free to get involved with the virtual environment.
Research on virtual simulations found that they improve training outcomes in fields such as medicine (Larsen,
Oestergaard, Ottesen, & Sørensen, 2012), oil exploration (Brasil et al., 2011), and the military (Bowman & McMahan, 2007).
A second area of “virtualness” of interest in training is the use of virtual worlds. Virtual worlds are often open-ended, user
developed, three dimensional spaces that resemble the actual environments. Trainees in a virtual world are represented by avatars
(or simulated bodies) that interact with the virtual environment, and can communicate with other avatars through text and voice.
The use of virtual worlds promises greater trainee engagement than traditional online courses because each trainee is immersed in
an environment which includes rich visual, audio, and communication stimuli. For example, some companies are using Second Life
virtual environments that allows trainees' avatars the opportunity to shape their environments and interact with others
(de Noyelles, Hornik, & Johnson, 2014). Research from education found that Second Life can improve trainee engagement
(Hearrington, 2010), enhance interaction (Merchant et al., 2012), and improve learning outcomes (Hornik & Thornburg, 2010). In
general, research suggests that virtual worlds such as Second Life provide the opportunity for online training to be more immersive,
interactive, and engaging.
222 D.L. Stone et al. / Human Resource Management Review 25 (2015) 216–231
Despite the promise of virtual reality and virtual worlds, previous studies reported that they can be both technically difficult to
navigate and use for communication (de Noyelles, 2012; Mennecke, Hassall, & Triplett, 2008). However, advances in technology,
such as wearable virtual reality may be easier to use, and less costly than current methods. Thus, we believe that virtual reality and
other new technologies will be used in the near future to deliver training, but research will be needed to assess their effectiveness.
10. Goal 4: Managing and enhancing employee performance
One of the most critical goals for HR is the effective management of employee performance, which includes assessing current performance,
identifying high and low performers, and providing feedback to employees. Today, 93% of U.S. organizations surveyed use
some sort of electronic performance management system (e-PM; CedarCrestone, 2014). There are two primary areas where technology
has been used to support the performance management process: performance measurement, and performance feedback
(e.g., Cardy & Miller, 2005; Fletcher, 2001; Spinks, Wells, & Meche, 1999). In terms of measurement, e-PM can potentially facilitate
the process by using technology to track employee performance throughout the evaluation period, and record both formal and
informal evaluations on an ongoing basis. In terms of feedback, e-PM technologies can be used to tabulate the results of multi-rater
feedback, disseminate those results to employees and managers, and prompt managers to meet with employees to discuss their
performance and needed improvements.
11. Research on e-PM
The principal reasons that organizations use e-PM systems is that they believe that technology will streamline the performance
evaluation process, cut costs, and decrease the time and effort needed to manage employee performance (e.g., Bartram, 2004;
Bracken, Summers, & Fleenor, 1998). Despite the potential advantages of e-PM, research findings revealed that employees have
mixed reactions to the use of these systems (Payne, Horner, Boswell, Schroeder, & Stine-Cheyne, 2009). For instance, one study
found that employees felt more involved, and believed that supervisors would be more accountable when e-PM was used rather
than traditional paper and pencil methods (Payne et al., 2009). However, in that same study, employees reported that the quality
of the performance evaluation was lower when e-PM was used compared to traditional systems (Payne et al., 2009). Other research
found that differences in reactions to paper-based and e-PM systems were not due to the method of administration, but other factors,
including supervisors' span of control, and the type of employee completing the evaluation (Smither et al., 2004). Individuals' satisfaction
with performance appraisals is thought to be important because research found that it is positively related to work performance,
job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and negatively related to turnover (e.g., Jawahar, 2006; Kuvaas, 2006; Murphy
& Cleveland, 1995).
11.1. Employee reactions to e-PM feedback
Some other research focused on how employees respond to e-PM feedback (Ang & Cummi