Researchers often
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include in this level of generality a picture of scientific knowledge as: tentative,
empirical (based on observations), theory-laden, partly the product of human inference,
imagination and creativity, and socially and culturally embedded. The distinction
between observation and inference, and the nature of scientific theories and
laws are also included as important tenets of NOS (Lederman, 2007). In addition,
Seung et al. (2009) include an understanding of the development of scientific
knowledge in their framework, recognising this as an essential aspect of the epistemology
of science.
McComas and Olson (1998) analysed the NOS coverage of eight curriculum
standards documents, including Benchmarks for Scientific Literacy, National
Science Standards, the California State Standards, and National Curricula in Australia,
New Zealand, Canada, and England and Wales and found that there is some
consensus about the elements of NOS that should be taught. These include,
amongst others, the following aspects that reveal an obvious overlap with the portrayal
of NOS in the academic literature: