Hellenic concepts of matter
The apparent states of matter and the constancy of change are encountered in everyday life and in the whole system of nature.
The first philosopher Thales regarded water as the origin of all things, the same idea as the Babylonian held water as the origin of cosmos. Thales, however, explained the single reality of water, in place of mythical ideas, appearing in different physical forms - it can be altered into air and frozen to a solid ice.
Most philosophers after Thales agreed on the concept of the first source of all material things.
All material things were composed of a few basic elements or principles.
Basic elements were formed from a prime matter.
The idea of prime matter was further developed and expanded. Various ideas and primary materials were introduced in cosmological explanations of a visible world.
- Anaximander : apeiron, the indefinite and infinite.
- Anaximenes : air which is subject to the reverse processes of condensation and rarefaction.
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- Herakleitos : fire and the reverse processes of condensation and rarefaction.
- Empedokles : four roots of things, and two forces that joined and separated them.
- Plato : the formless prime matter takes on forms of elements with special shape - the five regular forms, later referred as Platonic bodies. The elements change into one another in definite ratios.
In addition : his dialogue Timaeus includes a discussion of the compositions of inorganic and organic bodies ; a basic treatise on chemistry.
- Aristotle : summarized the ideas of earlier thinkers and further developed the idea of fundamental properties of matter. Combining these properties in pair results in the four elements.
In addition : an immaterial ether is the fifth element that settles out into the sky and heavenly bodies.
All substances are made of prime matter. Different forms can be impressed by evolving from within, can be removed and replaced by new ones.
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Prime matter and elements
Doctrine of contrarieties
All things are a fusion of contradictory and opposing principles.
Aristotle's Theory
A prime matter associates with four different qualities or properties : hot ,cold, dry, and moist.
hot and cold are active qualities, dry and moist are passive qualities.
Only four possible combinations of these qualities can exist in a substance: Hot and moist, hot and dry, cold and moist, cold and dry.
Each combination of qualities was associated with an element; the four elements being air, fire, earth, and water.
All the different substances were composed of different combination of the qualities and therefore of the element.
All chemicals were then made of the same basic qualities and element.
Atomic Theory
The prime matter is the only one substance which exists in the from of changeless, indestructible, indivisible atoms of different sizes and shapes.
Atoms move back and forth randomly with nothing between them - in effect moving in void or vacuum.
The properties of materials depend upon the size and shape of the atoms.
Alchemy : an Attempt for Transmutation
Macedonian Empire and Hellenistic Culture
The world conquest of Alexander the Great ( 356-323 B.C.) ended the period of classical Hellenic philosophy and started the Hellenistic era that had lasted for ~ 300 year.
Greek civilization had spread throughout the regions of old cultures, i.e. Egypt and Mesopotamia, extended across Persia and entered India.
The conquest of India not only made the India civilization known to the West for the first time, but also paved the way for contacts with the civilization of China.
Alexander had made a very attempt to homogenise the peoples of his vast empire by encouraging intermarriage between the Greeks and the conquered people, and by bringing Greek thoughts and Greek manners to the colonies.
Alexander founded Alexandria, the most famous centre of learning in the ancient world, at the mouth of the Nile in 332 B.C.
Following the unexpected death of Alexander at Babylon, the empire was divided into satrapies which were assigned to the various generals. Egypt was taken by Ptolemy; whereas Babylon fell to Seleucus, after many years of intrigue, assassination, and open warfare. By 305 B.C. The various satraps assumed the title of 'King' in their own areas.
The two Kingdoms-Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, and Seleucid Empire of Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, and Persia - had dominated all the others and become the centres of Hellenistic thoughts for the next three centuries.
The term Hellenistic is designated as the common culture that spread over the whole region of Near East during that period.
Owing to the strong influence of eastern culture, the Hellenistic culture developed many distinctive features that set it apart from its original Hellenic culture.