Physical examination
Physical examination should include
inspection for signs and symptoms associated
with skull fracture. NICE (2007) guidelines
emphasise the need for early CT scanning
where intracerebral bleeding is suspected
following head trauma – skull X-rays should
have a limited role in investigation, for
example when an abusive injury is suspected
in children or vulnerable adults. It is known
that intracerebral bleeding is up to 12 times
more likely when the skull is fractured
(NICE 2007). Skull fractures fall into four
categories (Khan et al 2011):
Depressed.
Linear.
Basal.
Diastatic.
Depressed fractures occur when a portion of
the bony skull becomes detached from the
rest of the structure and is driven into the soft
tissue of the brain. This type of fracture is
not common, but should be suspected if the
mechanism of injury suggests potential for
this sort of lesion, for example in a penetrating
injury or where significant force occurs over
a small area of bone. The potential for
penetrating trauma should serve as a red flag
indicator and urgent consideration should be
given to CT scanning.
Linear fractures – undisplaced, non-depressed
injuries that follow a straight line across a
portion of the skull – are the most common
form of skull fracture. They occur generally as
a consequence of comparatively minor blunt
trauma over a wide area of bone. They are of
little significance unless they are associated with
bleeding (Khan et al 2011).
Basal skull fractures, sited in the
posterior aspect of the skull close to the
neck, are also rare, accounting for around
4% of skull fractures. However, they have a
higher association with intracerebral bleeding
secondary to dural tears, which are lesions in
3 List some of the
signs and symptoms that
might indicate a patient
has intracerebral
bleeding following a
head injury.
FIGURE 3
Battle’s sign: bruising in the mastoid area
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© NURSING STANDARD / RCN PUBLISHING june 27 :: vol 26 no 43 :: 2012 53
the outermost of the three meningeal layers
that may lead to subsequent bleeding (Khan
et al 2011).
Red flag signs and symptoms that should
raise suspicion of basal skull fracture and
prompt CT scanning of the brain include
(NICE 2007):
Leakage of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from
the ears (otorrhoea) or nose (rhinorrhoea).
‘Raccoon eyes’ or ‘panda eyes’ – bilateral
peri-orbital bruising.
Battle’s sign – bruising in the mastoid area
behind the auricle of the ear, which is usually
unilateral (Figure 3).
Haemotympanum – presence of blood
behind the eardrum.
CSF leakage may be seen as clear or
straw-coloured fluid draining from the nostrils
or ears. Haemotympanum, as mentioned
above, is characterised by the presence of
blood behind the eardrum when examined
with an otoscope. Patients who sustain a
basal skull fracture are at increased risk of
developing meningeal infections and require
intravenous antibiotics.
Diastatic fractures are injuries involving
suture lines, where the bony plates of the
skull join together in young children. Their
clinical relevance is dependent on the extent to
which underlying bleeding is present.
Physical examination should also include
inspection of the head for undulating, soft
swellings of the scalp that may be associated
with underlying fractures of the skull, and
for lacerations and bruising to the scalp.
Large lacerations to the scalp may occur as a
result of significant force and any such injury
greater than 5cm in size on the scalp of an
infant should prompt a request for a CT scan
(NICE 2007).
Complete time out activity 4