When presidential balloting is at hand, deals must be made not only publicly but decisively-for the winning side to renege on then before the next campaign would seem like a betrayal of the voters’ trust. Compromises, however necessary, that might appear unprincipled, opportunistic, or ideologically unsound are much harder tomake when they are to be scrutinized by the voters in an upcoming election. A presidential regime leaves much less room for tacit consensus-building, coalition-shifting, and the making of compromises which, though prudent, are hard to defend in public. Consociational methods of compromise, negotiation, and power-sharing under presidential constitutions have played major roles in the return of democratic government to Colombia, Venezuela, and, morerecently, Brazil. But these methods appeared as necessary antinomies-deviations from the rules of the system undertaken in order to limit the voters’ choices to what has been termed, rather loosely and pejoratively, democradura. The restoration of democracy. The restoration of democracy will no doubt continue to require consociational strategies such as the formation of grand coalitions and the making of many pacts; the drawback of presidentialism is that it rigidifies and formalizes them. They become binding for a fixed period, during which there is scant opportunity for revision or renegotiation. Moreover, as the Colombian case shows, such arrangements rob the electorate of some of its freedom of choice; parliamentary systems, like that of Spain with its consenso, make it much more likely that consociational agreements will be made only after the people have spoken.
Parliamentarism and Political Stability
The analysis of presidentialism’s unpromising implications for democracy is not meant to imply that no presidential democracy can be stable; on the contrary, the world’s most stable democracy-the United States of America-has a presidential constitution. Neveetheless, one cannot help tentatively concluding that in many other societies the odds that presidentialism will help preserve democracy are far less favorable.
While it is true that parliamentarism provides a more flexible and institutional context for the establishment and consolidation of regime democracy, it does not follow that just any sort of parliamentary will do. Indeed, to complete the analysis one would need to reflect upon constitution and its specific institutional the best of parliamentary office features. Among these would be a pri power with responsibility. which would in turn require strong, w political parties. Such features-1here are of course many disciplined others we lack the space to discuss-would help foster responsible decision making and stable govemments and would encourage genuine party competition without causing undue political fragmentation. In addition, every country has unique aspects that one must take into account-traditions of federalism, ethnic or cultural heterogeneity. and so on. Finally. it almost goes without saying that our analysis establishes probabilities and tendencies not determinisms. No one can only guarantee that parliamentary systems will never experience grave crisis or even breakdown.
In the final analysis, all regimes, however wisely designed, must depend for their preservation upon the support of society at large its major forces, groups, and institutions. They rely, therefore, on a public consensus which recognizes as legitimate authority only that power which is acquired through lawful and democratic means. They depend also on the ability of their leaders to govern, to inspire trust, to respect the limits of their power, and to reach an adequate degree of consensus. Although these qualities are most needed in a presidential system, it is precisely there that they are most difficult to achieve. Heavy reliance on the personal qualities of a political leader-on the virtue of a statesman, if you will-is a risky course, for one never knows if such a man can be found to fill the presidential office. But while no presidential constitution can guarantee a Washington, a Ju or a Lincoln, no parliamentary regime can guarantee an Adenauer or a Churchill either. Given such uncertainty, the aim of this essay has been merely to help unavoidable democratic institutions in recover a debate on the role of altermative building stable democratic polities.
เมื่อการลงคะแนนในการเลือกตั้งประธานาธิบดีที่อยู่ในมือWhen presidential balloting is at hand, deals must be made not only publicly but decisively- -สำหรับฝ่ายชนะในการแปรพักตร์ไปแล้วก่อนที่จะรณรงค์ต่อไปจะดูเหมือนการทรยศของผู้มีสิทธิเลือกตั้งfor the winning side to renege on then before the next campaign would seem like a betrayal of the voters' ’ ประนีประนอม แต่จำเป็นที่อาจปรากฏศีลธรรม ระบอบการปกครองของประธานาธิบดีออกจากห้องน้อยสำหรับฉันทามติโดยปริยายtrust. Compromises, however necessary, that might appear unprincipled, opportunistic, or ideologically unsound are much harder tomake when they are to be scrutinized by the voters in an upcoming election. A presidential regime leaves much less room for tacit consensus- -อาคารรัฐบาลbuilding, coalition- -ขยับและการประนีประนอมซึ่งแม้ว่าระมัดระวังยากที่จะปกป้องในที่สาธารณะ วิธีการ shifting, and the making of compromises which, though prudent, are hard to defend in public. Consociational methods of compromise, negotiation, and power- -ใช้งานร่วมกันภายใต้รัฐธรรมนูญประธานาธิบดีมีบทบาทสำคัญในการกลับมาของรัฐบาลประชาธิปไตยโคลัมเบีย sharing under presidential constitutions have played major roles in the return of democratic government to Colombia, Venezuela, and, morerecently, Brazil. But these methods appeared as necessary antinomies-deviations from the rules of the system undertaken in order to limit the voters’ choices to what has been termed, rather loosely and pejoratively, democradura. The restoration of democracy. The restoration of democracy will no doubt continue to require consociational strategies such as the formation of grand coalitions and the making of many pacts; the drawback of presidentialism is that it rigidifies and formalizes them. They become binding for a fixed period, during which there is scant opportunity for revision or renegotiation. Moreover, as the Colombian case shows, such arrangements rob the electorate of some of its freedom of choice; parliamentary systems, like that of Spain with its consenso, make it much more likely that consociational agreements will be made only after the people have spoken.
Parliamentarism and Political Stability
The analysis of presidentialism’s unpromising implications for democracy is not meant to imply that no presidential democracy can be stable; on the contrary, the world’s most stable democracy-the United States of America-has a presidential constitution. Neveetheless, one cannot help tentatively concluding that in many other societies the odds that presidentialism will help preserve democracy are far less favorable.
While it is true that parliamentarism provides a more flexible and institutional context for the establishment and consolidation of regime democracy, it does not follow that just any sort of parliamentary will do. Indeed, to complete the analysis one would need to reflect upon constitution and its specific institutional the best of parliamentary office features. Among these would be a pri power with responsibility. which would in turn require strong, w political parties. Such features-1here are of course many disciplined others we lack the space to discuss-would help foster responsible decision making and stable govemments and would encourage genuine party competition without causing undue political fragmentation. In addition, every country has unique aspects that one must take into account-traditions of federalism, ethnic or cultural heterogeneity. and so on. Finally. it almost goes without saying that our analysis establishes probabilities and tendencies not determinisms. No one can only guarantee that parliamentary systems will never experience grave crisis or even breakdown.
In the final analysis, all regimes, however wisely designed, must depend for their preservation upon the support of society at large its major forces, groups, and institutions. They rely, therefore, on a public consensus which recognizes as legitimate authority only that power which is acquired through lawful and democratic means. They depend also on the ability of their leaders to govern, to inspire trust, to respect the limits of their power, and to reach an adequate degree of consensus. Although these qualities are most needed in a presidential system, it is precisely there that they are most difficult to achieve. Heavy reliance on the personal qualities of a political leader-on the virtue of a statesman, if you will-is a risky course, for one never knows if such a man can be found to fill the presidential office. But while no presidential constitution can guarantee a Washington, a Ju or a Lincoln, no parliamentary regime can guarantee an Adenauer or a Churchill either. Given such uncertainty, the aim of this essay has been merely to help unavoidable democratic institutions in recover a debate on the role of altermative building stable democratic polities.
การแปล กรุณารอสักครู่..
