where 'ๆ,- is the refractive index at a specified frequency i, Vi is the velocity of the radiation in the medium, and c is its velocity in a vacuum. The refractive index of most liquids lies between 1.3 and 1.8; it is 1.3 to 2.5 or higher for solids.4
The interaction involved in transmission can be as¬cribed to periodic polarization of the atomic and molec¬ular species that make up the medium. Polarization in this context means the temporary deformation of the electron clouds associated with atoms or molecules that is brought about by the alternating electromagnetic field of the radiation. Provided that the radiation is not ab¬sorbed, the energy required for polarization is only mo¬mentarily retained (10~14 to 10~15 ร) by the species and is reemitted without alteration as the substance returns to its original state. Since there is no net energy change in this process, the frequency of the emitted radiation is unchanged, but the rate of its propagation is slowed by the time that is required for retention and reemission to occur. Thus, transmission through a medium can be viewed as a stepwise process that involves polarized atoms, ions, or molecules as intermediates.
Radiation from polarized particles should be emit¬ted in all directions in a medium. If the particles are small, however, it can be shown that destructive inter¬ference prevents the propagation of significant amounts in any direction other than that of the original light path. On the other hand, if the medium contains large parti-cles (such as polymer molecules or colloidal particles), this destructive interference is incomplete, and a por¬tion of the beam is scattered in all directions as a conse¬quence of the interaction step. Scattering is considered in a later section of this chapter.
Since the velocity of radiation in matter is wave¬length dependent and since c in Equation 6-11 is inde-pendent of this parameter, the refractive index of a sub¬stance must also change with wavelength. The variation in -refractive index of a substance with wavelength or frequency is called its dispersion. The dispersion of a typical substance is shown in Figure 6-9. Clearly, the relationship is complex; generally, however, dispersion plots exhibit two types of regions. In the normal disper¬sion region, there is a gradual increase in refractive index with increasing frequency (or decreasing wave-
length). Regions of anomalous dispersion are fre¬quency ranges in which a sharp change in refractive in¬dex is observed. Anomalous dispersion always occurs at frequencies that correspond to the natural harmonic frequency associated with some part of the molecule, atom, or ion of the substance. At such a frequency, per-manent energy transfer from the radiation to the sub¬stance occurs and absorption of the beam is observed. Absorption is discussed in a later section.
Dispersion curves are important when choosing materials for the optical components of instruments. A substance that exhibits normal dispersion over the wavelength region of interest is most suitable for the manufacture of lenses, for which a high and relatively constant refractive index is desirable. Chromatic aber-rations (formation of colored images) are minimized through the choice of such a material. In contrast, a sub-stance with a refractive index that is not only large but also highly frequency dependent is selected for the fab-rication of prisms. The applicable wavelength region for the prism thus approaches the anomalous dispersion region for the material from which it is fabricated.
6B-8 Refraction of Radiation
When radiation passes at an angle through the interface between two transparent media that have different den-sities, an abrupt change in direction, or refraction, of the beam is observed as a consequence of a difference in velocity of the radiation in the two media. When the beam passes from a less dense to a more dense environ-
where 'ๆ,- is the refractive index at a specified frequency i, Vi is the velocity of the radiation in the medium, and c is its velocity in a vacuum. The refractive index of most liquids lies between 1.3 and 1.8; it is 1.3 to 2.5 or higher for solids.4The interaction involved in transmission can be as¬cribed to periodic polarization of the atomic and molec¬ular species that make up the medium. Polarization in this context means the temporary deformation of the electron clouds associated with atoms or molecules that is brought about by the alternating electromagnetic field of the radiation. Provided that the radiation is not ab¬sorbed, the energy required for polarization is only mo¬mentarily retained (10~14 to 10~15 ร) by the species and is reemitted without alteration as the substance returns to its original state. Since there is no net energy change in this process, the frequency of the emitted radiation is unchanged, but the rate of its propagation is slowed by the time that is required for retention and reemission to occur. Thus, transmission through a medium can be viewed as a stepwise process that involves polarized atoms, ions, or molecules as intermediates.Radiation from polarized particles should be emit¬ted in all directions in a medium. If the particles are small, however, it can be shown that destructive inter¬ference prevents the propagation of significant amounts in any direction other than that of the original light path. On the other hand, if the medium contains large parti-cles (such as polymer molecules or colloidal particles), this destructive interference is incomplete, and a por¬tion of the beam is scattered in all directions as a conse¬quence of the interaction step. Scattering is considered in a later section of this chapter.Since the velocity of radiation in matter is wave¬length dependent and since c in Equation 6-11 is inde-pendent of this parameter, the refractive index of a sub¬stance must also change with wavelength. The variation in -refractive index of a substance with wavelength or frequency is called its dispersion. The dispersion of a typical substance is shown in Figure 6-9. Clearly, the relationship is complex; generally, however, dispersion plots exhibit two types of regions. In the normal disper¬sion region, there is a gradual increase in refractive index with increasing frequency (or decreasing wave-length). Regions of anomalous dispersion are fre¬quency ranges in which a sharp change in refractive in¬dex is observed. Anomalous dispersion always occurs at frequencies that correspond to the natural harmonic frequency associated with some part of the molecule, atom, or ion of the substance. At such a frequency, per-manent energy transfer from the radiation to the sub¬stance occurs and absorption of the beam is observed. Absorption is discussed in a later section.Dispersion curves are important when choosing materials for the optical components of instruments. A substance that exhibits normal dispersion over the wavelength region of interest is most suitable for the manufacture of lenses, for which a high and relatively constant refractive index is desirable. Chromatic aber-rations (formation of colored images) are minimized through the choice of such a material. In contrast, a sub-stance with a refractive index that is not only large but also highly frequency dependent is selected for the fab-rication of prisms. The applicable wavelength region for the prism thus approaches the anomalous dispersion region for the material from which it is fabricated.6B-8 Refraction of RadiationWhen radiation passes at an angle through the interface between two transparent media that have different den-sities, an abrupt change in direction, or refraction, of the beam is observed as a consequence of a difference in velocity of the radiation in the two media. When the beam passes from a less dense to a more dense environ-
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