In contrast, no differences were found between participants versus observers
of a violent video game (Cooper & Mackie, 1986; Silvem & Williamson, 1987).
In the Silvem and Williamson study, young children who viewed a Road Runner
cartoon or who played a Space Invaders video game increased in their subsequent
aggressive interpersonal behavior. Thus, participants and observers were affected
similarly by exposure to a violent television program or video game. Our virtual
reality study differed from both of these studies in several respects. First, we
studied young adults rather than children. Second, arousal, thoughts, feelings,
and personality traits were the focus of our inquiry; aggressive behavior was the
focus of the television and video game studies. Third, immersion may potentially
be a more powerful perceptual experience than video game play, thus increasing
the impact of interactive over observational experiences. Fourth, one child at a
time played the video game whereas two adults played the virtual reality game.