A persistent dilemma for teachers of mathematics concerns how to help children understand abstract concepts, such as addition and multiplication, and the symbols that are used to represent these concepts (Hiebert & Carpenter, 1992; Resnick & Ford, 1984).
Teachers face a double challenge.
Symbols may be difficult to teach to children who have not yet grasped the concepts that they represent.
At the same time, the concepts may be difficult to teach to children who have not yet mastered the symbols.
Not surprisingly, both teachers and mathematics researchers have called for better techniques to help children learn mathematical concepts and symbols.