14 Main Findings
Women with major depressive disorder (MDD) were less likely to receive screening mammography than women without MDD, although this association did not persist after controlling for potential confounding factors. However, having clinically significant psychological distress (K6 > 8) reduced the odds that a woman in Ontario would receive screening mammography within the subsequent 2 years by 37% (i.e. OR = 0.63), even after adjusting for known sociodemographic predictors of mammography compliance such as age, marital status, socioeconomic status and primary care service use. Neither women with MDD nor clinically significant psychological distress were less likely to receive cervical cancer screening
47
than their non-depressed or distressed counterparts across the full age range. However, women aged 40-70 with clinically significant psychological distress were less likely to receive cervical cancer screening than their non-distressed counterparts. This association approached conventional levels of statistical significance in multivariable analysis. All of these findings occurred in the context of increased use of primary care services by depressed and distressed women (whereas one might expect that depressed women should be more likely to be screened on the basis of their increased primary health care utilization).
The results of this study are in keeping with existing literature that suggests as many as half of eligible women do not receive screening at recommended intervals for breast and cervical cancers (Gentlemen & Lee, 1997; Ringash et al., 2001; Fehringer et al., 2005; Upshur et al., 2006). Our results lend further support to the assertion that clinically significant psychological distress is independently associated with screening mammography compliance and potentially Pap test compliance in middle-aged and older women. With respect to mammography compliance, this is the first Canadian population-level data to support a relationship and with respect to cervical cancer compliance, the findings complement previous findings using self-reported cervical cancer screening as an outcome (Kaida et al., 2008). The results of this study strengthen the results in the existing literature where studies measuring depressive symptoms or psychological distress were more likely to reveal an association between depression and screening outcomes than studies using strict diagnostic criteria for major depression. Additionally, in the present study, this phenomenon was observed in the same sample of women.
15 Strengths of the study
48
There are several elements of this study that strengthen its contribution to existing literature. In this study we used population-based survey data linked to administrative health data. This provided the advantages of standardized measures of major depression and psychological distress, accurate measures for cervical and breast cancer screening and adequate information on potential confounding variables. The high response rate of the community-based CCHS 1.2 survey and the high number of participants who agreed to data linkage argues that the results can be generalized to the population of Ontario, Canada and perhaps other developed countries with similar screening guidelines, processes and funding.
16 Potential Limitations
1. It is not known whether MDD was a factor in non-response to the CCHS 1.2 survey. Previous research has shown that telephone respondents tend to report very sensitive information and that telephone surveys are an optimal method for reaching the most respondents (Siemiatycki and Campbell, 1984). However, the concern is that severity of depression might result in a sampling bias. This might limit the ability to generalize results to the most severely depressed women in Ontario. In addition, it is possible that the most severely depressed women are less likely to participate in a community survey and also less likely to get cervical and breast cancer screening. This would bias the present study against finding an association. However, an association was found between having clinically significant psychological distress and mammography screening (even though more severely depressed women may not have been part of the sample).
49
2. A second potential limitation of the present investigation is that the mental status of the participating women is not known over the course of the follow-up period. It is not known whether women with MDD or those with clinically significant psychological distress received treatment targeting their symptoms over the study period (or whether they achieved a spontaneous remission of symptoms). Neither is it known whether women originally classified as non-depressed or non-distressed became so over the follow-up period. However, in both of these situations, one would expect bias to be in direction against finding an association (i.e. resolution of symptoms improving screening outcomes or emergence of symptoms worsening screening outcomes). The fact that a cross-sectional measure of depressive symptoms/distress predicts reduced mammography screening over the subsequent 2 years (despite the fact that some women may have received treatment), strengthens the validity of the observed association. Future research into whether treatment of psychological distress improves screening outcomes is warranted as a next investigative step.
3. A further limitation of the study is that it was not designed to determine the detailed mechanisms for reduced screening. However, our findings that women with clinically significant psychological distress have lower screening rates despite extensive primary care health service use suggest that primary care physicians may be in an optimal position to intervene to improve screening outcomes, regardless of the mechanism(s) behind the findings. Although Pap testing is an office-based procedure, most women in Ontario receive screening mammography through the Ontario Breast Screening Program (OBSP). Therefore, there is not necessarily a direct referral route from primary care practitioner to screening. To obtain screening through OBSP, women may be required to make or return multiple telephone calls and then attend an appointment in an unfamiliar place for a fairly uncomfortable procedure (that requires them to expose private body parts). It is plausible
50
that symptoms of psychological distress and depression such as lack of motivation, poor self-care, and feelings of guilt/shame, distraction by other somatic symptoms or distraction by life crisis situations could compromise the sustained effort required for women to receive a screening mammogram through OBSP. Further investigation (using primary data collection) will be needed to clarify where along the pathway from referral (or screening recommendation) women with depressive symptoms may be stalled.
17 Explanations for Study Findings
The reason why the symptom-based measure of psychological distress was more strongly associated with screening outcomes than the diagnostic measure of depression in predicting screening participation in this study warrants consideration. It is possible in the present study that the larger number of women with symptoms of psychological distress than with MDD (N=185 vs. N=132 for women ages 40-70 for cervical cancer screening; N=134 vs. N=67 for breast cancer screening) increased the power to detect significant effects. It is notable that the point estimates of mammography screening for the two variables (0.68 in women with MDD versus 0.63 for women with clinically significant psychological distress) are virtually identical while the confidence intervals differed. This suggests that the difference between the two findings is due to inadequate sample size in the MDD group. However, given the consistency of this finding with those in the existing literature, it is important to consider other explanations. As discussed, the K6is intended to be a non-specific psychiatric distress scale (Kessler et al., 2003b). Many individuals with positive scores have sub-threshold depressive symptoms, while still others have anxiety disorders, adjustment disorders or are experiencing psychological stress. The sample
51
sizes in this study were not large enough to generate meaningful subgroup analysis by psychiatric diagnosis. However, the key point is that patients with clinically significant symptoms of psychological distress (some of whom may have MDD, some of whom may have other mental illness or adjustment disorders) are at risk of reduced mammography screening. Perhaps psychological distress is actually the key determinant, with major depression being only one source of distress. Consistent with other emerging evidence regarding the impact of subthreshold depressive disorders on health-related function and quality of life (Ayuso-Mateos et al., 2010), these results suggest a broadening of the conceptualization of the relationship between depression and screening compliance to consider clinically significant depressive symptoms or psychiatric distress as a determinant of preventive screening.
The mechanisms explaining the observed associations between psychological distress and reduced screening are likely to be complex and involve patient, provider and systemic factors. The results of our study introduced a new finding that clinically significant symptoms of psychological distress were associated with reduced mammography screening and reduced pap test screening (in older women), despite significantly more visits to primary care practitioners. This type of association has been shown in other diseases: for example, Lipscombe et al., (2005) found that even when women with diabetes made more doctor visits, they had reduced mammography screening. It was outside the scope of the present study to investigate the mechanism behind this finding in more detail. However, it is plausible that clinically significant symptoms (irrespective of psychiatric diagnos
พบ 14 หลักผู้หญิงกับซึมเศร้า (MDD) มีน้อยน่าจะได้รับการตรวจ mammography มากกว่าผู้หญิงโดย MDD แม้ว่าสมาคมนี้ได้คงอยู่หลังจากการควบคุมสำหรับศักยภาพ confounding ปัจจัย อย่างไรก็ตาม มีความทุกข์ทางจิตใจอย่างมีนัยสำคัญทางคลินิก (K6 > 8) ลดราคาว่า ผู้หญิงในออนตาริโอจะได้รับการตรวจ mammography ภายใน 2 ปีต่อมา โดย 37% (เช่น หรือ = 0.63), แม้หลังจากการปรับ sociodemographic รู้จัก predictors ของ mammography ปฏิบัติเช่นอายุ สถานภาพ สถานะประชากร และหลักบริการใช้ ผู้หญิงกับ MDD หรือความทุกข์ทางจิตใจอย่างมีนัยสำคัญทางคลินิกไม่มีแนวโน้มน้อยลงจะได้รับการตรวจคัดกรองมะเร็งปากมดลูก47กว่าคู่ของพวกเขาไม่ใช่หดหู่ หรือเป็นทุกข์ข้ามช่วงอายุเต็ม อย่างไรก็ตาม ผู้หญิงที่มีอายุ 40-70 มีความทุกข์ทางจิตใจอย่างมีนัยสำคัญทางคลินิกมีน้อยน่าจะได้รับการตรวจคัดกรองมะเร็งปากมดลูกกว่าคู่ของพวกเขาไม่ใช่ลก็ สมาคมนี้ประดับธรรมดาระดับนัยสำคัญทางสถิติในการวิเคราะห์ multivariable สิ่งเหล่านี้ทั้งหมดเกิดในบริบทของการใช้บริการดูแลผู้หญิงซึมเศร้า และเป็นทุกข์เพิ่มขึ้น (ในขณะหนึ่งอาจคาดหวังว่า ผู้หญิงต่ำควรจะมีแนวโน้มที่จะมีฉายตามใช้ประโยชน์การดูแลสุขภาพหลักของพวกเขาเพิ่มขึ้น)ผลการศึกษานี้จะเน้นวรรณคดีอยู่ที่แนะนำเป็นครึ่งหนึ่งของผู้หญิงที่มีสิทธิได้รับคัดกรองในช่วงแนะนำสำหรับเต้านมและมะเร็งปากมดลูก (สุภาพบุรุษ & Lee, 1997 Ringash และ al., 2001 Fehringer et al., 2005 Upshur และ al., 2006) ผลของเรายืมสนับสนุนเพิ่มเติมเพื่อยืนยันว่าความทุกข์ทางจิตใจอย่างมีนัยสำคัญทางคลินิกได้อย่างอิสระที่เกี่ยวข้องกับการตรวจ mammography ปฏิบัติตามกฎระเบียบและอาจปฏิบัติตามการทดสอบในผู้หญิงวัยกลางคน และสูงอายุ เกี่ยวกับการปฏิบัติตามกฎระเบียบ mammography เป็นข้อมูลระดับประชากรแคนาดาครั้งแรกเพื่อสนับสนุนความสัมพันธ์ และเกี่ยวกับมะเร็งปากมดลูกตาม ผลการศึกษาเติมเต็มตนเองรายงานมะเร็งปากมดลูกตรวจคัดกรองเป็นผล (Kaida et al., 2008) โดยใช้ผลการวิจัยก่อนหน้านี้ ผลการศึกษาเสริมสร้างผลลัพธ์ในวรรณคดีที่มีอยู่ที่วัด depressive อาการหรือความทุกข์ทางจิตใจการศึกษามีแนวโน้มที่จะเปิดเผยความสัมพันธ์ระหว่างภาวะซึมเศร้าและการคัดกรองผลมากกว่าการศึกษาโดยใช้เกณฑ์การวินิจฉัยที่เข้มงวดสำหรับภาวะซึมเศร้าที่สำคัญ นอกจากนี้ ในการศึกษาปัจจุบัน ปรากฏการณ์นี้ถูกพบในตัวอย่างเดียวของผู้หญิง15 จุดแข็งของการศึกษา48There are several elements of this study that strengthen its contribution to existing literature. In this study we used population-based survey data linked to administrative health data. This provided the advantages of standardized measures of major depression and psychological distress, accurate measures for cervical and breast cancer screening and adequate information on potential confounding variables. The high response rate of the community-based CCHS 1.2 survey and the high number of participants who agreed to data linkage argues that the results can be generalized to the population of Ontario, Canada and perhaps other developed countries with similar screening guidelines, processes and funding.16 Potential Limitations1. It is not known whether MDD was a factor in non-response to the CCHS 1.2 survey. Previous research has shown that telephone respondents tend to report very sensitive information and that telephone surveys are an optimal method for reaching the most respondents (Siemiatycki and Campbell, 1984). However, the concern is that severity of depression might result in a sampling bias. This might limit the ability to generalize results to the most severely depressed women in Ontario. In addition, it is possible that the most severely depressed women are less likely to participate in a community survey and also less likely to get cervical and breast cancer screening. This would bias the present study against finding an association. However, an association was found between having clinically significant psychological distress and mammography screening (even though more severely depressed women may not have been part of the sample).492. A second potential limitation of the present investigation is that the mental status of the participating women is not known over the course of the follow-up period. It is not known whether women with MDD or those with clinically significant psychological distress received treatment targeting their symptoms over the study period (or whether they achieved a spontaneous remission of symptoms). Neither is it known whether women originally classified as non-depressed or non-distressed became so over the follow-up period. However, in both of these situations, one would expect bias to be in direction against finding an association (i.e. resolution of symptoms improving screening outcomes or emergence of symptoms worsening screening outcomes). The fact that a cross-sectional measure of depressive symptoms/distress predicts reduced mammography screening over the subsequent 2 years (despite the fact that some women may have received treatment), strengthens the validity of the observed association. Future research into whether treatment of psychological distress improves screening outcomes is warranted as a next investigative step.3. A further limitation of the study is that it was not designed to determine the detailed mechanisms for reduced screening. However, our findings that women with clinically significant psychological distress have lower screening rates despite extensive primary care health service use suggest that primary care physicians may be in an optimal position to intervene to improve screening outcomes, regardless of the mechanism(s) behind the findings. Although Pap testing is an office-based procedure, most women in Ontario receive screening mammography through the Ontario Breast Screening Program (OBSP). Therefore, there is not necessarily a direct referral route from primary care practitioner to screening. To obtain screening through OBSP, women may be required to make or return multiple telephone calls and then attend an appointment in an unfamiliar place for a fairly uncomfortable procedure (that requires them to expose private body parts). It is plausible50that symptoms of psychological distress and depression such as lack of motivation, poor self-care, and feelings of guilt/shame, distraction by other somatic symptoms or distraction by life crisis situations could compromise the sustained effort required for women to receive a screening mammogram through OBSP. Further investigation (using primary data collection) will be needed to clarify where along the pathway from referral (or screening recommendation) women with depressive symptoms may be stalled.17 Explanations for Study Findings
The reason why the symptom-based measure of psychological distress was more strongly associated with screening outcomes than the diagnostic measure of depression in predicting screening participation in this study warrants consideration. It is possible in the present study that the larger number of women with symptoms of psychological distress than with MDD (N=185 vs. N=132 for women ages 40-70 for cervical cancer screening; N=134 vs. N=67 for breast cancer screening) increased the power to detect significant effects. It is notable that the point estimates of mammography screening for the two variables (0.68 in women with MDD versus 0.63 for women with clinically significant psychological distress) are virtually identical while the confidence intervals differed. This suggests that the difference between the two findings is due to inadequate sample size in the MDD group. However, given the consistency of this finding with those in the existing literature, it is important to consider other explanations. As discussed, the K6is intended to be a non-specific psychiatric distress scale (Kessler et al., 2003b). Many individuals with positive scores have sub-threshold depressive symptoms, while still others have anxiety disorders, adjustment disorders or are experiencing psychological stress. The sample
51
sizes in this study were not large enough to generate meaningful subgroup analysis by psychiatric diagnosis. However, the key point is that patients with clinically significant symptoms of psychological distress (some of whom may have MDD, some of whom may have other mental illness or adjustment disorders) are at risk of reduced mammography screening. Perhaps psychological distress is actually the key determinant, with major depression being only one source of distress. Consistent with other emerging evidence regarding the impact of subthreshold depressive disorders on health-related function and quality of life (Ayuso-Mateos et al., 2010), these results suggest a broadening of the conceptualization of the relationship between depression and screening compliance to consider clinically significant depressive symptoms or psychiatric distress as a determinant of preventive screening.
The mechanisms explaining the observed associations between psychological distress and reduced screening are likely to be complex and involve patient, provider and systemic factors. The results of our study introduced a new finding that clinically significant symptoms of psychological distress were associated with reduced mammography screening and reduced pap test screening (in older women), despite significantly more visits to primary care practitioners. This type of association has been shown in other diseases: for example, Lipscombe et al., (2005) found that even when women with diabetes made more doctor visits, they had reduced mammography screening. It was outside the scope of the present study to investigate the mechanism behind this finding in more detail. However, it is plausible that clinically significant symptoms (irrespective of psychiatric diagnos
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