ิerivatives are financial instruments with values that change relative to underlying
variables, such as assets, events, or prices. In other words, the value of derivatives is based
on the change in value of something else, called the underlying trade or exchange.
The main types of derivatives are futures, forwards, options, and swaps. A futures
contract is an agreement to buy or sell a set quantity of something at a set
rate at a predetermined point in the future. The date on which this exchange
is scheduled to take place is called the delivery, or settlement, date. Futures
contracts are often associated with buyers and sellers of commodities who
are concerned about supply, demand, and changes in prices. They can be
traded only on exchanges. Almost any commodity, such as oil, gold, corn, or
soybeans, can have a futures contract defined for a specific trade.
Forwards are similar to futures, except they can be traded between two
individuals. A forward contract is a commitment to trade a specified item at
a specific price in the future. The forward contract takes whatever form to
which the parties agree.
An option is a less binding form of derivative. It conveys the right, but not
the obligation, to buy or sell a particular asset in the future. A call option gives
the investor the right to buy at a set price on delivery day. A put option gives
the investor the option to sell a good or financial instrument at a set price on the settlement
date. It is a financial contract with what is called a long position, giving the owner the right
but not the obligation to sell an amount at a preset price and maturity date.
Finally, swaps live up to their name. A swap can occur when two parties agree to
exchange one stream of cash flows against another one. Swaps can be used to hedge risks
such as changes in interest rates, or to speculate on the changing prices of commodities
or currencies. Swaps can be difficult to understand, so here is an example. JP Morgan
developed CDSs that bundled together as many as 300 different assets, including subprime
loans. Credit default swaps were meant as a form of insurance. In other words, securities
were bundled into one financial package, and companies such as JP Morgan were essentially
paying insurance premiums to the investors who purchased them, who were now on the
hook if payments of any of the securities included in the CDSs did not come through.
As mentioned before, the value of derivatives is based on different types of underlying
values, including assets such as commodities, equities (stocks), bonds, interest rates,
exchange rates, or indexes such as a stock market index, consumer price index (CPI), or
Th e value of
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Case 10: Banking Industry Meltdown: The Ethical and Financial Risks of Derivatives 399
even an index of weather conditions. For example, a farmer and a grain storage business
enter into a futures contract to exchange cash for grain at some future point. Both parties
have reduced a future risk. For the farmer it is the uncertainty of the future grain price, and
for the grain storage business it is the availability of the grain at a predetermined price.
Some believe derivatives lead to market volatility because enormous amounts of
money are controlled by relatively small amounts of margin or option premiums. The
job of a derivatives trader is something like a bookie taking bets on how people will bet.
Arbitrage is defined as attempting to profit by exploiting price differences of identical
or similar financial instruments, on different markets, or in different forms. As a result,
derivatives can suffer large losses or returns from small movements in the underlying
asset’s price. Investors are like gamblers in that they can bet for or against the price (going
up or down) and can consequently lose or win large amounts.