the initial outcome of testing is typically a raw score such as the total number of personality statements endorsed in a particular direction or the total number of problems solved correctly, perhaps with bonus points added in for quick solutions. In most cases, the initial score is useless by itself. For test results to be meaningful, examiners must be able to convert the initial score to some form of derived score based on comperison to a norm group performance; criterion-referenced tests are an exception, discussed subsequently.