1-389 The ship manager will experience, throuhgout hois career, intense pressures to reduce costs: cheaper crews, reduced scantlings, defferred training, less quality control on bunker specifications, cuts in planned maintenance schedules to mention a few of the more common approaches. All will deliver a fairly immediate, and fairly direct, saving to set against the sudden (but not unusual) downturns in freight rate which characterise shipping. Some of these measures will also bring additional, medium to long-term costs in their wake, together with adverse effects on safety, quality and the morale and jop satisfaction of the seafarer. These costs may be less direct and, therefore, less easy to attribute. The overall cost to the industry of flag of convenience crews, for example, has been significant - and has contributed in no small part to the need for an ISM Code and the implementation of port state control inspections.