addition, subtraction, multiplication and division involving different time units. In Shanghai, students were
only taught the 24-hour system and the relationships between different time units. Addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division involving length and mass were found in grades 2 to 6 in Malaysia syllabus. In
Shanghai, topics on length were covered in grades 1 to 2 while topic on mass was taught in grades 3 to 5.
Volume of liquid was taught as an independent topic in the Malaysian syllabus, but it was not seen in the
Shanghai syllabus.
Third, Shanghai placed more emphasis on algebra, geometry, and deductive reasoning as compare to
Malaysia. For example, in Shanghai, algebraic expression was introduced as early as in grades 1 to 5;
while in Malaysia, algebraic expression was only introduced in grade 8. Moreover, in Shanghai, linear
equations were studied in grades 6 to7, but it was only introduced in grade 8 in Malaysia. Likewise,
Shanghai students studied simple algebraic and quadratic equations in grades 8 to 9 while Malaysian
students only studied it in grade 9. For geometry, the area of the trapezium was taught in grades 3 to 5 in
Shanghai but only in grade 7 in Malaysia. Finding maximum and minimum values of the perimeter of
rectangles was seen in grades 4 to 5 in Shanghai, while exploration of perimeters of rectangles having
the same area and areas of rectangles having the same perimeter were found in grade 8 in the Malaysian
syllabus. While the concept of angle was introduced in grade 2 in Shanghai, it was only taught in grade 7
in Malaysia. Finally, in Shanghai, deductive reasoning involving parallel lines and congruent triangles
were discussed in depth in grades 6 to 7; in contrast, Malaysia only introduced this topic in grade 11.
Overall, we observed that the topics on algebra, geometry, and deductive reasoning were introduced to
the Shanghai students earlier than the Malaysian students.
The fourth difference was that Shanghai students were exposed to a wider and higher content level
earlier than Malaysian students in both the primary and secondary school level. For example, the concept
of real number was introduced in grades 6 to 7 in Shanghai, but it was only found in Form 6 (grades 11-12)
in the Malaysian syllabus. The topics on construction and transformation were found in grades 6 to 7 in
Shanghai; while these topics appeared only in Malaysia’s grade 8. Scientific notation appeared in grade 6
in Shanghai; while it appeared only in Malaysia’s grade 11.
In addition, the extension sections of the Shanghai syllabus also enabled Shanghai students to develop
new and innovative mathematical ideas through investigation, history of mathematics and projects. Some
examples of innovative topics were as follows: a) history of number (grades 1 to 2), b) foreign exchange
of currency (grades 4 to 5), c) puzzles and cultural mathematics such as “The Nine Chapters Arithmetic”,
d) mathematical proof such as why √2 is not a rational number (grades 6 to 7), e) the use of optimization
theory in industrial production and human management (grades 8 to 9), and f) projects involving
probability in daily life problems (grades 8-9).
The final difference between Malaysian and Shanghai mathematics education is that Malaysian students
underwent an extra year of Form 6 or pre-university study as compared to Shanghai students. Thus, they
managed to learn all the belated contents. For example, the Shanghai syllabus did not introduce the
concept of series in upper secondary school while the Malaysian students learned the sum of finite and
infinite convergent series in their Form 6 syllabus. In the Shanghai syllabus, the concept of discrete
random variable and continuous random variable were mentioned in the learning of normal distribution
without detailed discussion. Conversely, in Malaysia, the distribution of both types of random variables
was discussed. In the learning of estimation, Shanghai only had point estimation; while in Malaysia, both
internal estimation and point estimation were introduced. Finally, differential equations, limit of functions,
continuity of functions, time series, index numbers, and variation were all found in the Malaysian but not
in the Shanghai syllabus.
Conclusion and Implications
In summary, we noticed that both the Malaysian and Shanghai mathematics curriculum had very similar
content; albeit, the Shanghai students were introduced with many of the content areas much earlier than
the Malaysian students. In addition, some of the content levels were much broader and deeper in
Shanghai. Nevertheless, the Malaysian students managed to learn all the content levels if they entered
Form 6 which resulted in an additional year of total schooling (12 years) as compared to the Shanghai
students (11 years).
The observation that the Malaysian syllabus placed most of the higher level contents in Form 6 indicated
that, in Malaysia, only students w