Approaches to translation hackwork, or less important, or easier. But the distinction between careful, sensitive and elegant writing proper words in proper places', as swift put it-on the one hand, and predictable, hackneyed and modish phrases in fact, bad writing on the other, cuts across all this. A translator must respect good writing scrupulously accounting for its language, structures and content, whether the piece is scientific or poetic, philosophical or fictional. If the writing is poor, it is normally his duty to improve it, whether it is technical or a routine. commercialized best-seller. The basic difference between the artistic and the non-literary is that the first is symbolical or allegorical and the second representational in intention; the difference in translation is that more attention is paid to connotation and emotion in imaginative literature. The translator has to be a good judge of writing; he must assess not only the literary quality but the moral seriousness of a text in the sense of Arnold and Leavis. Moreover, any reading in stylistics, which is at the intersection between linguistics and literary criticism, such as a study of Jakobson (1960, 1966) and Spitzer (1948), both of whom discuss translation as well as comparative literature, will help him Logic and philosophy, in particular ordinary language philosophy, have a bearing on the grammatical and lexical aspects of translation respectively. A study of logic will assist the translator to assess the truth-values underlying the passage he is translating: all sentences depend on presuppositions and where the sentences are obscure or ambiguous, the translator has to determine the presuppositions. Moreover, a transla tion-rule such as the following on negations (my own) derives from logic: "A word translated by a negative and its noun or object complementary term may be a satisfactory equivalent." (Thus a "female' is 'not a male'.) A word translated by a its verb or process converse term is not a satisfactory equivalent negative and although the equivalent meaning may be ironically implied. (Compare 'We advanced' "We didn't retreat'.) A word translated by a negative and its contrary term is not a and satisfactory equivalent, u it is used ironically. (Compare spendthrift' and 'not stingy.) A word translated by a negative and its contradictory term is a weakened equivalent, but the force of the understatement may convey equivalence: e.g. false' is almost not true'; he agreed with that' is almost 'he didn't dissent from it'. Lastly, a word translated by a double negative and the same word or its synonym is occasionally an effective translation, but normally in a weakened form (e.g. "grateful may be "not not unappreciative'). A translator has to bear all the above options i ungratefu mind, in particular where the contrary, contradictory or converse term is plainly or approximately missing in the target language, which should be his own is a fundamental issue in translation theory. When Wittgenstein 'aban- Philosophy doned the idea that the structure of reality determines the structure of language, and suggested that it is really the other way round' (Pears, 1971), he implied that translation was that much harder. His most often quoted remark, For a large number of cases though not for all in which we employ the word "meaning", it can be defined or explained t "the meaning of a word is its use in the language (Wittgenstein, 1958), is more pertinent to translation, which in the final consideration is only concerned with contextual use, than to language as d system. Again, when Austin (1963) made his revolutionary distinction between descriptive and performa tive sentences, he illustrated a valuable contrast between non-standardized and standardized language which always interests a translator: for a formulaic sentence