2.3.2. Linear expansion ratio
Linear expansion ratio (LER) was measured according to the
method described by Kyaw, Cheow, Yu, and Dzulkifly (2001). The
unpuffed samples were ruled with five lines across using a fine oil
marker pen. Each line was measured before and after puffing. Ten
crackers were employed for each substitution level. LER was
calculated as follows:
LER ¼
ðLength after puffing Length before puffingÞ
Length before puffing
2.3.3. Bulk density
The bulk volume of the fried crackers was obtained by the millet
displacement method descried by Han, Yin, Li, Yang, and Ma (2010).
Their mass was determined using an analytical balance with