Challenging working theories
Through ongoing inquiry into aspects of their lives, understandings will eventually change with
new information and experience. Where children are able to make connections with their previous
learning, they might refine their working theories in an effort to understand their lives and world.
However, where children’s knowledge is limited due to experience and they are unable to make
connections, the inconsistent information is likely to remain as discrete, discrepant knowledge to
perhaps recall later when presented with further information that challenges their understandings
again.
In the following examples, Imogen illustrated Lindfors’ (1999) description of inquiry acts as
to ‘engage others in going beyond one’s present understanding; seek information; seek confirmation
of an idea; seek explanation of some phenomenon; and wonder about something [in] a
stance of openness to a world of possibilities’ (p. 4). Three 2-year-olds, Imogen, Safiya and Elise
who had recently witnessed the birth of a newborn sibling, were discussing their friendships with
others:
Imogen asks Elise ‘Who your baby’s best friend?’ Elise looks puzzled. Imogen ‘Your baby, your baby
come out of mummy’s tummy’. Elise shakes her head ‘My baby come out of mummy’s bottom’. Imogen
laughs [tone of disbelief] ‘Yeah out of her bottom’. (1K/168-169)
Here, Imogen revealed two working theories in one inquiry act where she elicited the assistance of
a more experienced peer to help her understand ideas important to her. Imogen’s working theories
about infants having a ‘best friend’ and the process of childbirth were evidence of her present
understandings from her life experiences. However, Elise’s new experiences of her sibling left
Elise puzzled in relation to considering Imogen’s theory that an infant might have a best friend.
However, this working theory was not followed up or contested on this occasion as Elise either did
not have the wherewithal or evidence to yet do so or perhaps considered that the other was more
relevant to challenge.
In relation to Imogen’s second working theory, the newly experienced Elise raised novel information
that was completely discordant with Imogen’s understanding of pregnancy and childbirth.
Imogen’s inability to yet connect her understandings and ideas was an example of Claxton’s (1990)
argument that sometimes children grasp pieces of knowledge regarded as relevant and interesting
without any overall coherence in knowledge or understanding. Claxton also noted that learners
must find explanations plausible. Imogen’s rejection of Elise’s information may have further been
complicated by both adult explanations she had received thus far about where foetuses grow and
her focused efforts with toilet training at that time.
Furthermore, because minitheories involve beliefs as well as knowledge, Claxton argued that
they can be remarkably resistant to change even when incontrovertible evidence is presented.
Therefore, repeated experiences where children are exposed to incongruous information may make
conceptual change more likely to eventually occur. Claxton (1990) noted that an important step is
‘making implicit theories explicit’ (p. 38). Imogen’s working theories about pregnancy and childbirth
would be revisited and challenged in future as she revised her understandings based on further
collaborative learning through peers, her own family and community experiences and as she confronted
more scientific conceptions of these understandings.
Moreover, the task of connecting and transferring different pieces of knowledge, and restructuring
working theories to take account of these, may also therefore be difficult and more complex
than, for example, Piagetian explanations such as disequilibrium, accommodation and assimilation.