Method This study compared fourth-grade academic outcomes of students who attended ECCE programs with those of students from similar socioeconomic backgrounds who did not attend an ECCE program before Kindergarten. For the purpose of this work, partici-pation in ECCE programs is defined as at least one year of attendanceat any level from early Middle Grade to Pre-K (i.e., ages 2–5years). Nursery grades data were excluded due to lack of reliableelectronic