are invented or constructed.2 Like ideas for consumer
products and the products themselves, substantive
and/or methodological theory products must also be
marketed.
At some point in the development of a theory the
scientist usually produces a manuscript that describes
the idea. The manuscript may also present empirical
data that illustrate the idea and/or provide tentative
support. A manuscript is a tangible representation of
the invented system of ideas. Marketing a theory as
a tangible manuscript is both easier and more effective
than promoting an intangible set of ideas, for at least
four reasons. First, the theory product can be stored
by potential adopters for use (study) at a more convenient
time. Second, because the manuscript is always
available, potential adopters can reexamine and
reflect on the theory and possibly come to appreciate
its value. Third, the relative permanence of a manuscript
allows wider dissemination of the theory to a
secondary, pass-along audience (e.g., students). Finally,
a tangible manuscript may be used to establish
the scientist/marketer as the inventor of the theory or
as the first to borrow the theory from another area and
apply it in a new field.
Over its life cycle a theory may undergo a number
of modifications in response to a variety of potential
marketing problems. Customer complaints regarding
measurement difficulties or lack of conceptual clarity,
and competitive theory products marketed by other
scientists, are among the many problems a new theory
may face in trying to capture a viable market share of
scientists. Perhaps the most serious problem occurs
when a test of a theory fails to predict adequately.
This means that the theory is not meeting the needs
of the largest segment of researchers-those concerned
with prediction and methodological and empirical
rigor. If the research community cannot be
convincedt hatt he empiricalt est proceduresw ere faulty,
either the inventor scientist or another scientist who
has adopted the theory may change specific characteristics
of the theory product in response to such
problems. However, the modified theory is seldom renamed,
as this might lose loyal customers. Many of
these modifications are made to seem minor and the
change process may be quite gradual, often so much
so that the changes are not always recognized by the
target market of scientists. However, it should be emphasized
that any change in a theory creates a modified
product-i.e., a different theory. For instance,
researchers made a number of seemingly minor conceptual