It is not hard to extend the history of policy studies back to antiquity: what governments do or do not do has occupied the attention and interest of humans ever since there were governments. All advisers who whispered in the ears of princes, and their rivals who assessed and countered the prince’s decisions, were students of public policy. All were interested in answering the research questions listed just a few paragraphs ago. Using these questions as a means to define its intellectual heritage, policy studies can legitimately claim everyone from Plato (who laid out a lot of policy recommendations in The Republic) to Machiavelli (who in The Prince had some definite ideas on how policy making power should be exercised) among their intellectual founders. Other political thinkers Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, James Madison, Adam Smith, John Stuart Millqualify as policy scholars under this definition.