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For small dams the buttresses are u
For small dams the buttresses are usually analysed as gravity blocks subject to the inclined water load, their own weight and small uplift.A buttress can be considered as composed of a system of curved beams, each of which transmits part of the water load and its own weight to the foundations, Fig. 12.25. The columns can be proportioned to develop uniform compressive stress and curved to avoid eccentricity of loading.This assumes that such columns are free to act and that no second principal stresses are present.However,such buttresses are usually built monolithically, reinforced on both faces to resist thermal as well as the second principal stresses that do occur.
More precise analysis, either by conventional statics, by finite element methods or by photoelastic studies to determine the magnitude and direction of the principal stresses, confirms that the water load is in fact transmitted through the buttresses to the foundation as thought a series of such curved columns. Zienkiewicz, however, has shown that the conventional assumption of linear distribution of stresses on horizontal deformability is significant. This becomes increasingly important as the height of the dam increases.
In order to avoid secondary tensile stresses, the buttresses of many large dams have been built with contraction joints following the directions of the principal stresses, i.e. Possum Kingdom Dam, U.S.A., and Grandval Dam, France. At Nant-y-Moch Dam, Wales, a central inclined and upper horizontal joint were included, Fifs.12.26 and 12.27.
Inclined Joints were provided at the 72 m high Roseires Dam on the Blue Nile, Sudan. The dam has four arches each of 50 m span; The buttresses have a constant thickness of 5.5 m, yhougt the last section downstream is slightly enlarged. The upstream batter is 0.7 and that downstream 0.6. The buttresses are divided into 12.5 m sections whose faces are parallel to the downsream face except for the downstream section which acts as a load distribution stringer on to the order section. The joints were made with rack teeth 150 mm proud over 50 per cent of the surface with provision for the grouting through reinjectable valves. The arches are 1.62 m thick at the crest and 4.3 m at maximum depth, each built in two sections with three injectable joints.
The Bartlett Dam, U.S.A., is a multiple-arch dam of maximum height 88 m. The buttresses-spaced at 18.3 m-are hollow and include vertical keyed joints. On the other hand, the Pensacola Dam of maximum height 43 m has hollow buttresses spaced at 25.6 m; these buttresses were built with construction joints in two directions at 90 –approximately following the lines of the principal stresses. The 46 m high Buchanan Dam, U.S.A., has keyed construction joints-vertical and-horizontal (dipping upstream)The hollow gravity dam has been developed to save concrete, since a conventional gravity dam about one-quarter to one-third of the concrete counteracts the effects of uplift. Dr C. Marcello of Italy has been responsible for many large dams of this type(Ref. 11, Section 12) such as Bissina Dam. In this two case construction joints were provided-normal to the first principal stress, Fig.12.28.
Grandval Dam is a multiple-arch dam 88 m high with 50 m between buttresses. These have an upstream and downstream batter of 0.7 and 0.4, respectively. During initial years of operation, cracks appeared and worsened in the two central overspill buttresses. In particular, there was an increasing number of failures of the keys locking the buttresses blocks together. Measurement taken on the dam itself, photoelastic studies and theoretical analyses indicated that cracking was caused by high tensile stress due to the downstream batter being too low, Fig. 12.29. The dam was reinforced by lengthening the downstream footing of the two central buttresses and making use the stability provided by the downstream block of each. Two tiers of jacks were installed, one above the foundations(joint’A’) and the other between the new block and the dam (joint’B’). Theses jacks are maintained active and were operated twice between 1966 and 1970 to compensate for concrete shrinkage and creep in both the concrete and the foundation rock.
At Cruachan Dam, a photoelastic glass stress meter was built into the interior of a buttress. Before water load was applied the meter indicated tensile stresses as high as 6 MPa,emphasizing that thermal stresses in mass concrete buttresses can be very serious. Controlled cooling of such concrete, with properly located groutable construction joints, therefore appears to be desirable if serious cracking is to be avoided. The location of joints is most important-and should be decided with relation to the shape of the buttress, the thermal stresses due to hydration of the cement, ambient temperature changes at the site, as well as the directions and magnitudes of principal stresses resulting from water load and own weight. Since any joints will affect the monolithic behavior of the buttress, many Engineers prefer to omit joints and rely upon reinforcement to prevent cracking. Determination of the pattern and quantity of such reinforcement is largely indeterminate-unless access is available to finite element or photoelastic analysis-and becomes a matter for judgment by the Engineer-another example of the Art versus the Science in Engineering.
More precise analysis, either by conventional statics, by finite element methods or by photoelastic studies to determine the magnitude and direction of the principal stresses, confirms that the water load is in fact transmitted through the buttresses to the foundation as thought a series of such curved columns. Zienkiewicz, however, has shown that the conventional assumption of linear distribution of stresses on horizontal deformability is significant. This becomes increasingly important as the height of the dam increases.
In order to avoid secondary tensile stresses, the buttresses of many large dams have been built with contraction joints following the directions of the principal stresses, i.e. Possum Kingdom Dam, U.S.A., and Grandval Dam, France. At Nant-y-Moch Dam, Wales, a central inclined and upper horizontal joint were included, Fifs.12.26 and 12.27.
Inclined Joints were provided at the 72 m high Roseires Dam on the Blue Nile, Sudan. The dam has four arches each of 50 m span; The buttresses have a constant thickness of 5.5 m, yhougt the last section downstream is slightly enlarged. The upstream batter is 0.7 and that downstream 0.6. The buttresses are divided into 12.5 m sections whose faces are parallel to the downsream face except for the downstream section which acts as a load distribution stringer on to the order section. The joints were made with rack teeth 150 mm proud over 50 per cent of the surface with provision for the grouting through reinjectable valves. The arches are 1.62 m thick at the crest and 4.3 m at maximum depth, each built in two sections with three injectable joints.
The Bartlett Dam, U.S.A., is a multiple-arch dam of maximum height 88 m. The buttresses-spaced at 18.3 m-are hollow and include vertical keyed joints. On the other hand, the Pensacola Dam of maximum height 43 m has hollow buttresses spaced at 25.6 m; these buttresses were built with construction joints in two directions at 90 –approximately following the lines of the principal stresses. The 46 m high Buchanan Dam, U.S.A., has keyed construction joints-vertical and-horizontal (dipping upstream)The hollow gravity dam has been developed to save concrete, since a conventional gravity dam about one-quarter to one-third of the concrete counteracts the effects of uplift. Dr C. Marcello of Italy has been responsible for many large dams of this type(Ref. 11, Section 12) such as Bissina Dam. In this two case construction joints were provided-normal to the first principal stress, Fig.12.28.
Grandval Dam is a multiple-arch dam 88 m high with 50 m between buttresses. These have an upstream and downstream batter of 0.7 and 0.4, respectively. During initial years of operation, cracks appeared and worsened in the two central overspill buttresses. In particular, there was an increasing number of failures of the keys locking the buttresses blocks together. Measurement taken on the dam itself, photoelastic studies and theoretical analyses indicated that cracking was caused by high tensile stress due to the downstream batter being too low, Fig. 12.29. The dam was reinforced by lengthening the downstream footing of the two central buttresses and making use the stability provided by the downstream block of each. Two tiers of jacks were installed, one above the foundations(joint’A’) and the other between the new block and the dam (joint’B’). Theses jacks are maintained active and were operated twice between 1966 and 1970 to compensate for concrete shrinkage and creep in both the concrete and the foundation rock.
At Cruachan Dam, a photoelastic glass stress meter was built into the interior of a buttress. Before water load was applied the meter indicated tensile stresses as high as 6 MPa,emphasizing that thermal stresses in mass concrete buttresses can be very serious. Controlled cooling of such concrete, with properly located groutable construction joints, therefore appears to be desirable if serious cracking is to be avoided. The location of joints is most important-and should be decided with relation to the shape of the buttress, the thermal stresses due to hydration of the cement, ambient temperature changes at the site, as well as the directions and magnitudes of principal stresses resulting from water load and own weight. Since any joints will affect the monolithic behavior of the buttress, many Engineers prefer to omit joints and rely upon reinforcement to prevent cracking. Determination of the pattern and quantity of such reinforcement is largely indeterminate-unless access is available to finite element or photoelastic analysis-and becomes a matter for judgment by the Engineer-another example of the Art versus the Science in Engineering.
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For small dams the buttresses are usually analysed as gravity blocks subject to the inclined water load, their own weight and small uplift.A buttress can be considered as composed of a system of curved beams, each of which transmits part of the water load and its own weight to the foundations, Fig. 12.25. The columns can be proportioned to develop uniform compressive stress and curved to avoid eccentricity of loading.This assumes that such columns are free to act and that no second principal stresses are present.However,such buttresses are usually built monolithically, reinforced on both faces to resist thermal as well as the second principal stresses that do occur.More precise analysis, either by conventional statics, by finite element methods or by photoelastic studies to determine the magnitude and direction of the principal stresses, confirms that the water load is in fact transmitted through the buttresses to the foundation as thought a series of such curved columns. Zienkiewicz, however, has shown that the conventional assumption of linear distribution of stresses on horizontal deformability is significant. This becomes increasingly important as the height of the dam increases.In order to avoid secondary tensile stresses, the buttresses of many large dams have been built with contraction joints following the directions of the principal stresses, i.e. Possum Kingdom Dam, U.S.A., and Grandval Dam, France. At Nant-y-Moch Dam, Wales, a central inclined and upper horizontal joint were included, Fifs.12.26 and 12.27.Inclined Joints were provided at the 72 m high Roseires Dam on the Blue Nile, Sudan. The dam has four arches each of 50 m span; The buttresses have a constant thickness of 5.5 m, yhougt the last section downstream is slightly enlarged. The upstream batter is 0.7 and that downstream 0.6. The buttresses are divided into 12.5 m sections whose faces are parallel to the downsream face except for the downstream section which acts as a load distribution stringer on to the order section. The joints were made with rack teeth 150 mm proud over 50 per cent of the surface with provision for the grouting through reinjectable valves. The arches are 1.62 m thick at the crest and 4.3 m at maximum depth, each built in two sections with three injectable joints.The Bartlett Dam, U.S.A., is a multiple-arch dam of maximum height 88 m. The buttresses-spaced at 18.3 m-are hollow and include vertical keyed joints. On the other hand, the Pensacola Dam of maximum height 43 m has hollow buttresses spaced at 25.6 m; these buttresses were built with construction joints in two directions at 90 –approximately following the lines of the principal stresses. The 46 m high Buchanan Dam, U.S.A., has keyed construction joints-vertical and-horizontal (dipping upstream)The hollow gravity dam has been developed to save concrete, since a conventional gravity dam about one-quarter to one-third of the concrete counteracts the effects of uplift. Dr C. Marcello of Italy has been responsible for many large dams of this type(Ref. 11, Section 12) such as Bissina Dam. In this two case construction joints were provided-normal to the first principal stress, Fig.12.28.Grandval Dam is a multiple-arch dam 88 m high with 50 m between buttresses. These have an upstream and downstream batter of 0.7 and 0.4, respectively. During initial years of operation, cracks appeared and worsened in the two central overspill buttresses. In particular, there was an increasing number of failures of the keys locking the buttresses blocks together. Measurement taken on the dam itself, photoelastic studies and theoretical analyses indicated that cracking was caused by high tensile stress due to the downstream batter being too low, Fig. 12.29. The dam was reinforced by lengthening the downstream footing of the two central buttresses and making use the stability provided by the downstream block of each. Two tiers of jacks were installed, one above the foundations(joint’A’) and the other between the new block and the dam (joint’B’). Theses jacks are maintained active and were operated twice between 1966 and 1970 to compensate for concrete shrinkage and creep in both the concrete and the foundation rock.At Cruachan Dam, a photoelastic glass stress meter was built into the interior of a buttress. Before water load was applied the meter indicated tensile stresses as high as 6 MPa,emphasizing that thermal stresses in mass concrete buttresses can be very serious. Controlled cooling of such concrete, with properly located groutable construction joints, therefore appears to be desirable if serious cracking is to be avoided. The location of joints is most important-and should be decided with relation to the shape of the buttress, the thermal stresses due to hydration of the cement, ambient temperature changes at the site, as well as the directions and magnitudes of principal stresses resulting from water load and own weight. Since any joints will affect the monolithic behavior of the buttress, many Engineers prefer to omit joints and rely upon reinforcement to prevent cracking. Determination of the pattern and quantity of such reinforcement is largely indeterminate-unless access is available to finite element or photoelastic analysis-and becomes a matter for judgment by the Engineer-another example of the Art versus the Science in Engineering.
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For small dams the buttresses are usually analysed as gravity blocks subject to the inclined water load, their own weight and small uplift.A buttress can be considered as composed of a system of curved beams, each of which transmits part of the water load and its own weight to the foundations, Fig. 12.25. The columns can be proportioned to develop uniform compressive stress and curved to avoid eccentricity of loading.This assumes that such columns are free to act and that no second principal stresses are present.However,such buttresses are usually built monolithically, reinforced on both faces to resist thermal as well as the second principal stresses that do occur.
More precise analysis, either by conventional statics, by finite element methods or by photoelastic studies to determine the magnitude and direction of the principal stresses, confirms that the water load is in fact transmitted through the buttresses to the foundation as thought a series of such curved columns. Zienkiewicz, however, has shown that the conventional assumption of linear distribution of stresses on horizontal deformability is significant. This becomes increasingly important as the height of the dam increases.
In order to avoid secondary tensile stresses, the buttresses of many large dams have been built with contraction joints following the directions of the principal stresses, i.e. Possum Kingdom Dam, U.S.A., and Grandval Dam, France. At Nant-y-Moch Dam, Wales, a central inclined and upper horizontal joint were included, Fifs.12.26 and 12.27.
Inclined Joints were provided at the 72 m high Roseires Dam on the Blue Nile, Sudan. The dam has four arches each of 50 m span; The buttresses have a constant thickness of 5.5 m, yhougt the last section downstream is slightly enlarged. The upstream batter is 0.7 and that downstream 0.6. The buttresses are divided into 12.5 m sections whose faces are parallel to the downsream face except for the downstream section which acts as a load distribution stringer on to the order section. The joints were made with rack teeth 150 mm proud over 50 per cent of the surface with provision for the grouting through reinjectable valves. The arches are 1.62 m thick at the crest and 4.3 m at maximum depth, each built in two sections with three injectable joints.
The Bartlett Dam, U.S.A., is a multiple-arch dam of maximum height 88 m. The buttresses-spaced at 18.3 m-are hollow and include vertical keyed joints. On the other hand, the Pensacola Dam of maximum height 43 m has hollow buttresses spaced at 25.6 m; these buttresses were built with construction joints in two directions at 90 –approximately following the lines of the principal stresses. The 46 m high Buchanan Dam, U.S.A., has keyed construction joints-vertical and-horizontal (dipping upstream)The hollow gravity dam has been developed to save concrete, since a conventional gravity dam about one-quarter to one-third of the concrete counteracts the effects of uplift. Dr C. Marcello of Italy has been responsible for many large dams of this type(Ref. 11, Section 12) such as Bissina Dam. In this two case construction joints were provided-normal to the first principal stress, Fig.12.28.
Grandval Dam is a multiple-arch dam 88 m high with 50 m between buttresses. These have an upstream and downstream batter of 0.7 and 0.4, respectively. During initial years of operation, cracks appeared and worsened in the two central overspill buttresses. In particular, there was an increasing number of failures of the keys locking the buttresses blocks together. Measurement taken on the dam itself, photoelastic studies and theoretical analyses indicated that cracking was caused by high tensile stress due to the downstream batter being too low, Fig. 12.29. The dam was reinforced by lengthening the downstream footing of the two central buttresses and making use the stability provided by the downstream block of each. Two tiers of jacks were installed, one above the foundations(joint’A’) and the other between the new block and the dam (joint’B’). Theses jacks are maintained active and were operated twice between 1966 and 1970 to compensate for concrete shrinkage and creep in both the concrete and the foundation rock.
At Cruachan Dam, a photoelastic glass stress meter was built into the interior of a buttress. Before water load was applied the meter indicated tensile stresses as high as 6 MPa,emphasizing that thermal stresses in mass concrete buttresses can be very serious. Controlled cooling of such concrete, with properly located groutable construction joints, therefore appears to be desirable if serious cracking is to be avoided. The location of joints is most important-and should be decided with relation to the shape of the buttress, the thermal stresses due to hydration of the cement, ambient temperature changes at the site, as well as the directions and magnitudes of principal stresses resulting from water load and own weight. Since any joints will affect the monolithic behavior of the buttress, many Engineers prefer to omit joints and rely upon reinforcement to prevent cracking. Determination of the pattern and quantity of such reinforcement is largely indeterminate-unless access is available to finite element or photoelastic analysis-and becomes a matter for judgment by the Engineer-another example of the Art versus the Science in Engineering.
More precise analysis, either by conventional statics, by finite element methods or by photoelastic studies to determine the magnitude and direction of the principal stresses, confirms that the water load is in fact transmitted through the buttresses to the foundation as thought a series of such curved columns. Zienkiewicz, however, has shown that the conventional assumption of linear distribution of stresses on horizontal deformability is significant. This becomes increasingly important as the height of the dam increases.
In order to avoid secondary tensile stresses, the buttresses of many large dams have been built with contraction joints following the directions of the principal stresses, i.e. Possum Kingdom Dam, U.S.A., and Grandval Dam, France. At Nant-y-Moch Dam, Wales, a central inclined and upper horizontal joint were included, Fifs.12.26 and 12.27.
Inclined Joints were provided at the 72 m high Roseires Dam on the Blue Nile, Sudan. The dam has four arches each of 50 m span; The buttresses have a constant thickness of 5.5 m, yhougt the last section downstream is slightly enlarged. The upstream batter is 0.7 and that downstream 0.6. The buttresses are divided into 12.5 m sections whose faces are parallel to the downsream face except for the downstream section which acts as a load distribution stringer on to the order section. The joints were made with rack teeth 150 mm proud over 50 per cent of the surface with provision for the grouting through reinjectable valves. The arches are 1.62 m thick at the crest and 4.3 m at maximum depth, each built in two sections with three injectable joints.
The Bartlett Dam, U.S.A., is a multiple-arch dam of maximum height 88 m. The buttresses-spaced at 18.3 m-are hollow and include vertical keyed joints. On the other hand, the Pensacola Dam of maximum height 43 m has hollow buttresses spaced at 25.6 m; these buttresses were built with construction joints in two directions at 90 –approximately following the lines of the principal stresses. The 46 m high Buchanan Dam, U.S.A., has keyed construction joints-vertical and-horizontal (dipping upstream)The hollow gravity dam has been developed to save concrete, since a conventional gravity dam about one-quarter to one-third of the concrete counteracts the effects of uplift. Dr C. Marcello of Italy has been responsible for many large dams of this type(Ref. 11, Section 12) such as Bissina Dam. In this two case construction joints were provided-normal to the first principal stress, Fig.12.28.
Grandval Dam is a multiple-arch dam 88 m high with 50 m between buttresses. These have an upstream and downstream batter of 0.7 and 0.4, respectively. During initial years of operation, cracks appeared and worsened in the two central overspill buttresses. In particular, there was an increasing number of failures of the keys locking the buttresses blocks together. Measurement taken on the dam itself, photoelastic studies and theoretical analyses indicated that cracking was caused by high tensile stress due to the downstream batter being too low, Fig. 12.29. The dam was reinforced by lengthening the downstream footing of the two central buttresses and making use the stability provided by the downstream block of each. Two tiers of jacks were installed, one above the foundations(joint’A’) and the other between the new block and the dam (joint’B’). Theses jacks are maintained active and were operated twice between 1966 and 1970 to compensate for concrete shrinkage and creep in both the concrete and the foundation rock.
At Cruachan Dam, a photoelastic glass stress meter was built into the interior of a buttress. Before water load was applied the meter indicated tensile stresses as high as 6 MPa,emphasizing that thermal stresses in mass concrete buttresses can be very serious. Controlled cooling of such concrete, with properly located groutable construction joints, therefore appears to be desirable if serious cracking is to be avoided. The location of joints is most important-and should be decided with relation to the shape of the buttress, the thermal stresses due to hydration of the cement, ambient temperature changes at the site, as well as the directions and magnitudes of principal stresses resulting from water load and own weight. Since any joints will affect the monolithic behavior of the buttress, many Engineers prefer to omit joints and rely upon reinforcement to prevent cracking. Determination of the pattern and quantity of such reinforcement is largely indeterminate-unless access is available to finite element or photoelastic analysis-and becomes a matter for judgment by the Engineer-another example of the Art versus the Science in Engineering.
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สำหรับเขื่อนขนาดเล็ก buttresses มักจะวิเคราะห์เป็นบล็อกแรงโน้มถ่วงการเอียงน้ำโหลดน้ำหนักของตัวเองและยกเล็ก ที่ถือได้ว่าเป็นองค์ประกอบของระบบคานโค้งซึ่งแต่ละส่งส่วนหนึ่งของน้ำ และของตัวเองหนักรากฐานไม่ 12.25 .คอลัมน์สามารถได้ส่วนสัดพัฒนาเครื่องแบบความเค้นอัดและโค้งเพื่อหลีกเลี่ยงความผิดปกติของการโหลด นี้ถือว่า คอลัมน์ เช่นมีอิสระที่จะทำและไม่เน้นหลักสองเป็นปัจจุบัน อย่างไรก็ตาม เช่น buttresses มักจะสร้าง monolithically เสริมแรง บนใบหน้าของทั้งสองที่จะต้านทานความร้อนรวมทั้งสองหลักเน้นว่าเกิดขึ้น .
การวิเคราะห์ที่แม่นยำมากขึ้นโดยสถิตปกติโดยวิธีไฟไนต์เอลิเมนต์โดยโฟโตอิลาสติก หรือการศึกษาเพื่อหาขนาดและทิศทางของความเค้นหลัก ยืนยันว่า น้ำ โหลด ในความเป็นจริงที่ส่งผ่าน buttresses กับมูลนิธิคิดว่าชุดเช่นโค้งคอลัมน์ zienkiewicz อย่างไรก็ตามได้แสดงให้เห็นว่าสมมติฐานปกติของการกระจายความเค้นเชิงเส้นในแนวนอน คือ ความสามารถในการปรับรูปสำคัญ นี้จะกลายเป็นสิ่งสำคัญมากขึ้น เช่น ความสูงของเขื่อนเพิ่มขึ้น
เพื่อหลีกเลี่ยงรองแรงเน้น , buttresses เขื่อนขนาดใหญ่มากมายได้ถูกสร้างขึ้นด้วยตัวข้อต่อตามทิศทางของความเค้นหลัก เช่น เขื่อน พอสซั่ม สหราชอาณาจักร สหรัฐอเมริกาและ grandval เขื่อน , ฝรั่งเศส ที่ nant-y-moch เขื่อน เวลส์ กลางเอียง และร่วมกันบนแนวนอนถูกรวมและ fifs.12.26 12.27 .
เอียงข้อต่อถูกจัดอยู่ที่ 72 เมตร สูง roseires เขื่อนใน Blue Nile , ซูดาน เขื่อน ได้สี่คิ้วแต่ละช่วง 50 M ; buttresses มีความหนาคงที่ 5.5 เมตร yhougt สุดท้ายส่วนปลายน้ำมันขยาย แป้งน้ำเป็น 0
การวิเคราะห์ที่แม่นยำมากขึ้นโดยสถิตปกติโดยวิธีไฟไนต์เอลิเมนต์โดยโฟโตอิลาสติก หรือการศึกษาเพื่อหาขนาดและทิศทางของความเค้นหลัก ยืนยันว่า น้ำ โหลด ในความเป็นจริงที่ส่งผ่าน buttresses กับมูลนิธิคิดว่าชุดเช่นโค้งคอลัมน์ zienkiewicz อย่างไรก็ตามได้แสดงให้เห็นว่าสมมติฐานปกติของการกระจายความเค้นเชิงเส้นในแนวนอน คือ ความสามารถในการปรับรูปสำคัญ นี้จะกลายเป็นสิ่งสำคัญมากขึ้น เช่น ความสูงของเขื่อนเพิ่มขึ้น
เพื่อหลีกเลี่ยงรองแรงเน้น , buttresses เขื่อนขนาดใหญ่มากมายได้ถูกสร้างขึ้นด้วยตัวข้อต่อตามทิศทางของความเค้นหลัก เช่น เขื่อน พอสซั่ม สหราชอาณาจักร สหรัฐอเมริกาและ grandval เขื่อน , ฝรั่งเศส ที่ nant-y-moch เขื่อน เวลส์ กลางเอียง และร่วมกันบนแนวนอนถูกรวมและ fifs.12.26 12.27 .
เอียงข้อต่อถูกจัดอยู่ที่ 72 เมตร สูง roseires เขื่อนใน Blue Nile , ซูดาน เขื่อน ได้สี่คิ้วแต่ละช่วง 50 M ; buttresses มีความหนาคงที่ 5.5 เมตร yhougt สุดท้ายส่วนปลายน้ำมันขยาย แป้งน้ำเป็น 0
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ภาษาอื่น ๆ
การสนับสนุนเครื่องมือแปลภาษา: กรีก, กันนาดา, กาลิเชียน, คลิงออน, คอร์สิกา, คาซัค, คาตาลัน, คินยารวันดา, คีร์กิซ, คุชราต, จอร์เจีย, จีน, จีนดั้งเดิม, ชวา, ชิเชวา, ซามัว, ซีบัวโน, ซุนดา, ซูลู, ญี่ปุ่น, ดัตช์, ตรวจหาภาษา, ตุรกี, ทมิฬ, ทาจิก, ทาทาร์, นอร์เวย์, บอสเนีย, บัลแกเรีย, บาสก์, ปัญจาป, ฝรั่งเศส, พาชตู, ฟริเชียน, ฟินแลนด์, ฟิลิปปินส์, ภาษาอินโดนีเซี, มองโกเลีย, มัลทีส, มาซีโดเนีย, มาราฐี, มาลากาซี, มาลายาลัม, มาเลย์, ม้ง, ยิดดิช, ยูเครน, รัสเซีย, ละติน, ลักเซมเบิร์ก, ลัตเวีย, ลาว, ลิทัวเนีย, สวาฮิลี, สวีเดน, สิงหล, สินธี, สเปน, สโลวัก, สโลวีเนีย, อังกฤษ, อัมฮาริก, อาร์เซอร์ไบจัน, อาร์เมเนีย, อาหรับ, อิกโบ, อิตาลี, อุยกูร์, อุสเบกิสถาน, อูรดู, ฮังการี, ฮัวซา, ฮาวาย, ฮินดี, ฮีบรู, เกลิกสกอต, เกาหลี, เขมร, เคิร์ด, เช็ก, เซอร์เบียน, เซโซโท, เดนมาร์ก, เตลูกู, เติร์กเมน, เนปาล, เบงกอล, เบลารุส, เปอร์เซีย, เมารี, เมียนมา (พม่า), เยอรมัน, เวลส์, เวียดนาม, เอสเปอแรนโต, เอสโทเนีย, เฮติครีโอล, แอฟริกา, แอลเบเนีย, โคซา, โครเอเชีย, โชนา, โซมาลี, โปรตุเกส, โปแลนด์, โยรูบา, โรมาเนีย, โอเดีย (โอริยา), ไทย, ไอซ์แลนด์, ไอร์แลนด์, การแปลภาษา.
- Keep english
- Findings – A positive association is doc
- I pity the apple, he loved someone like
- ตัวสีเทาชอบอยู่รวมกันเป็นโขลง
- tea contains
- มาสิ
- buck
- what are the advantages of learning Engl
- Antibiotic
- จะมีเพียงเธอ รักเพียงแต่เธอ
- terminal building
- dear Ms.thank you for your letter of apr
- ไม่กล้า
- ฉันได้ไปทำบุญ ไหว้พระ
- พยายาม
- In the same way as in the historical sim
- ฉันรู้คุณทำได้
- i've got a new brother
- The portfolio is revalued for each pair
- รัฐบาลมอบหมายให้กรมสรรพสามิตเป็นหน่วยงาน
- วันเกิดของน้องสาวฉัน
- ใหญ่ที่สุด
- courteous
- Martensitic steels are designed to form
