Successful transition from tube feedings to breast feeding can be challenging. Skin-to-skin care begun as soon as the baby is stable improves hemodynamic stability without increasing energy expenditure.98, 99Non-nutritive sucking (mother pumps first and then places the baby to the breast) can be attempted as soon as the baby is extubated and stable with success noted as early as 28 weeks corrected gestational age.100Most premature infants can begin nutritive sucking about 32 weeks gestation. Assistance from an experienced nurse or lactation consultant is invaluable. Positioning that supports the mother’s breast and the baby’s head and neck are essential with the cross-cradle and football holds most effective. Early use of nipple shields increases milk intake and duration of breastfeeding.101
Withholding mother’s own milk from premature infants
In most instances provision of mother’s own milk is optimal. The few circumstances in which mother’s own milk should not be provided are discussed in Chapter 15, Circumstances when breastfeeding is contraindicated. While it is certainly plausible that premature infants with their immature immune systems are more vulnerable to infection, in most cases data regarding differences between premature and term infants in susceptibility to milk-associated infections are lacking. This section will focus on contraindications specific to premature infants.
Post-natal transmission of cytomegalovirus (CMV) through breast milk is a frequent occurrence given that approximately 50% of adults are carriers of CMV. Symptomatic post-natal CMV infection is rare in term infants, likely because of maternal antibody transfer in the third trimester. A recent meta-analysis found wide variation among studies with overall mean rate of CMV transmission via breast milk 23%, mean risk of symptomatic CMV infection 3.7% and mean risk of sepsis-like symptoms of 0.7% with most symptomatic infections in premature infants.102 Low birth weight and early transmission after birth are risk factors for symptomatic disease.103 Whether CMV infection increases the severity of the diseases of prematurity (e.g. chronic lung disease, NEC, periventricular leukomalacia) is unknown. Long term studies of premature infants infected with CMV through mother’s own milk are few, but suggest that hearing loss and severe neurodevelopmental delays are uncommon.104, 105 Pasteurization inactivates CMV; freezing may decrease but does not eliminate transmission of CMV.106 There is no consensus among neonatologists and pediatricians regarding the best balance between the benefits of human milk and the risks of CMV infection. Recommendations vary from pasteurizing all human milk until corrected gestational age of 32 weeks, to screening all mothers who deliver preterm and withholding colostrum and pasteurizing milk of women who are CMV IgG positive, to freezing all CMV positive milk for premature infants < 32 weeks.
Drug abuse is common among pregnant and nursing women and increases the risk of premature delivery.107, 108 Long term effects of in utero and post natal exposure to these substances are unclear, but studies to date are concerning.109, 110 Whether the risks of continued exposure to these substances outweigh the benefits of human milk for the premature infant with its rapidly developing central nervous system is unclear. Current guidelines are to encourage mothers who abuse substances other than opiates to obtain counseling and to refrain from providing milk for their infants until they are free of the abused drugs.111
Treatment of depression in pregnancy and in breastfeeding women is an area of particular relevance given the reported associations between maternal anti-depressant use and pre-term labor,112 neonatal seizures,112and neonatal primary pulmonary hypertension. Causality and the mechanisms underlying these associations are unknown. It is unclear whether the latter association in a small number of studies is related to the medications or to risk factors associated with both maternal depression and pulmonary hypertension (e.g. obesity, smoking, prematurity, and cesarean delivery).113 A recent review of anti-depressant medication use in lactating women suggested caution in the use of fluoxetine and avoidance of doxepine and nefazodone.114 Data specific to preterm infants or neonates with pulmonary hypertension are not available.
It is likely that in situations where mother’s own milk should not be given, donor human milk would be advantageous. There are rare exceptions wherein an infant should receive no (e.g. galactosemia) or limited volumes (e.g. some inborn errors of metabolism and human milk protein intolerance) of human milk. These are particularly relevant to premature infants in whom the brain is developing rapidly.
Successful transition from tube feedings to breast feeding can be challenging. Skin-to-skin care begun as soon as the baby is stable improves hemodynamic stability without increasing energy expenditure.98, 99Non-nutritive sucking (mother pumps first and then places the baby to the breast) can be attempted as soon as the baby is extubated and stable with success noted as early as 28 weeks corrected gestational age.100Most premature infants can begin nutritive sucking about 32 weeks gestation. Assistance from an experienced nurse or lactation consultant is invaluable. Positioning that supports the mother’s breast and the baby’s head and neck are essential with the cross-cradle and football holds most effective. Early use of nipple shields increases milk intake and duration of breastfeeding.101
Withholding mother’s own milk from premature infants
In most instances provision of mother’s own milk is optimal. The few circumstances in which mother’s own milk should not be provided are discussed in Chapter 15, Circumstances when breastfeeding is contraindicated. While it is certainly plausible that premature infants with their immature immune systems are more vulnerable to infection, in most cases data regarding differences between premature and term infants in susceptibility to milk-associated infections are lacking. This section will focus on contraindications specific to premature infants.
Post-natal transmission of cytomegalovirus (CMV) through breast milk is a frequent occurrence given that approximately 50% of adults are carriers of CMV. Symptomatic post-natal CMV infection is rare in term infants, likely because of maternal antibody transfer in the third trimester. A recent meta-analysis found wide variation among studies with overall mean rate of CMV transmission via breast milk 23%, mean risk of symptomatic CMV infection 3.7% and mean risk of sepsis-like symptoms of 0.7% with most symptomatic infections in premature infants.102 Low birth weight and early transmission after birth are risk factors for symptomatic disease.103 Whether CMV infection increases the severity of the diseases of prematurity (e.g. chronic lung disease, NEC, periventricular leukomalacia) is unknown. Long term studies of premature infants infected with CMV through mother’s own milk are few, but suggest that hearing loss and severe neurodevelopmental delays are uncommon.104, 105 Pasteurization inactivates CMV; freezing may decrease but does not eliminate transmission of CMV.106 There is no consensus among neonatologists and pediatricians regarding the best balance between the benefits of human milk and the risks of CMV infection. Recommendations vary from pasteurizing all human milk until corrected gestational age of 32 weeks, to screening all mothers who deliver preterm and withholding colostrum and pasteurizing milk of women who are CMV IgG positive, to freezing all CMV positive milk for premature infants < 32 weeks.
Drug abuse is common among pregnant and nursing women and increases the risk of premature delivery.107, 108 Long term effects of in utero and post natal exposure to these substances are unclear, but studies to date are concerning.109, 110 Whether the risks of continued exposure to these substances outweigh the benefits of human milk for the premature infant with its rapidly developing central nervous system is unclear. Current guidelines are to encourage mothers who abuse substances other than opiates to obtain counseling and to refrain from providing milk for their infants until they are free of the abused drugs.111
Treatment of depression in pregnancy and in breastfeeding women is an area of particular relevance given the reported associations between maternal anti-depressant use and pre-term labor,112 neonatal seizures,112and neonatal primary pulmonary hypertension. Causality and the mechanisms underlying these associations are unknown. It is unclear whether the latter association in a small number of studies is related to the medications or to risk factors associated with both maternal depression and pulmonary hypertension (e.g. obesity, smoking, prematurity, and cesarean delivery).113 A recent review of anti-depressant medication use in lactating women suggested caution in the use of fluoxetine and avoidance of doxepine and nefazodone.114 Data specific to preterm infants or neonates with pulmonary hypertension are not available.
It is likely that in situations where mother’s own milk should not be given, donor human milk would be advantageous. There are rare exceptions wherein an infant should receive no (e.g. galactosemia) or limited volumes (e.g. some inborn errors of metabolism and human milk protein intolerance) of human milk. These are particularly relevant to premature infants in whom the brain is developing rapidly.
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