particular both schooling level and log pce. Rural residents also
have higher CES-D scores. While these relationships are not
necessary causal, they do show that there exists a strong SES
gradient in depressive symptoms in China. This result is consistent
with what other studies in China have found for depressive
symptoms, but now replicated on a national sample and for the
mid-aged and elderly population. This result is also consistent with
findings of strong socio-economic and urban-rural gradients for
other health measures including general, physical, and cognitive
(Lei et al., 2014). As we know, China is now experiencing high
economic inequality, much of that between urban and rural areas.