The growing conflict between the shah and the ulama
had a significant impact on pre-revolutionary Iran and
the kinds of Islamists that emerged. The shah spent vast
sums on education and scholarships abroad for Iranian
students. This meant that a greater number of poor, rural
students had the opportunity to study outside of Iran.
Although these opportunities often resulted in better economic
prospects upon returning to Iran, many of these
students remained conservative in their Islamic outlook.
Thus, the shah’s policies, along with expanding ulama resistance,
meant that three types of Islamists developed:
Marxists (those of the far left), centrists (those open to a
mix of conservative and liberal ideas), and conservatives
(e.g. Khomeini). Looking back, the shah’s conflict with
the ulama thus produced a diverse array of Islamist forces,
which Khomeini was eventually able to connect with and
direct. For Khomeini and a growing number of Islamists,
radicalism was increasingly the best option for resisting
the shah’s expansionist and pro-Western policies.