Hence, we reemphasize our initial sentence in this article: Th e signifi cance of using concrete
manipulatives for some mathematics problems cannot be overstated. We needed tools that
we could touch and move; these supported our eff orts to visualize the problem. From those
visualizations we were able to create patterns in a symbolic representation (see Figure 2). Indeed,
Bruner (1966) suggested that when we attempt to learn new mathematical ideas, it is valuable
to follow a sequence through three modes of representation: enactive (action-based or concrete)
to iconic (image-based or pictorial) to symbolic (language-based or letters and numerals). Th is
is true for adult learners as well as for young children (Bruner, 1966).