The risk of hepatocellular carcinoma among persons with
chronic HBV infection (those who are positive for the hepatitis B surface antigen
[HBsAg]) is further increased if they are male or elderly, have been infected for a
long time, have a family history of hepatocellular carcinoma, have been exposed to
the mycotoxin aflatoxin, have used alcohol or tobacco, are coinfected with HCV or
hepatitis delta virus, have high levels of HBV hepatocellular replication (as indicated