This fact that bureaucratic politics extends beyond the bureaucracy itself was highlighted by Laurence O’Toole (1997b) in his admonition to take networks seriously. For public administration, networks can be thought of as a set of organizations that are interdependent, that is, they share goals, interests, resources, or values. These interdependencies tie together not just public bureaucracies within, between, and among differing political jurisdictions, but private and nonprofit agencies as well, in the process creating new forms of organizational and management practices that are employed to achieve collective or public ends. O’Toole (1997a) argued that networked administration is not only common, but also increasingly important, for five main reasons. First, “wicked” policy problems require the mobilization of a variety of actors, both inside and outside government. Such problems are the result of multiple causes, and typically span more than one jurisdiction. A single agency will not be able to address these problems without help, from actors both inside and outside of government and from across levels of government. Second, political demands for limited government, but without reductions in demands for action, give rise to networks that include nonstate actors through contracting. As shown in Chapter 5, the implication of contracting is something we are only beginning to understand. Third, the need for bureaucracy to be responsive to the public naturally leads to the inclusion of citizen and industry groups in decision making. Networks may indeed increase accountability to the public, but, as will be discussed, it is unclear if they always produce the democratic effects we expect. Fourth, as sophisticated program evaluations have revealed indirect or second-order effects of policies, implementation networks have been established to reflect those relationships. Fifth, O’Toole (1997b) noted that many mandates have multiple layers that essentially require program management to become networked. Here, he used the example of transportation program managers needing to account for the rights of disabled people.