At its heart, the idea of total war revolved around the notions of escalation and participation (McInnis 2002). Fears of escalation derived from the concern that once started, warfare was difficult if not impossible to control. This meant that wars were likely to increase in scale (both in terms of geographic spread and casualties) as well as intensity, thus eroding the various constraints on the conduct of war. Participation referred to the growing involvement of citizens in warfare, both as combatants willing to fight and die for their nation, and as workers willing to make important sacrifices to fuel the war effort at home. The image of national participation in the war effort was epitomized by the levee en masse decreed by France’s revolutionary government in August 1793.