A. Motivation and Engagement of students with intellectual disability According to Ryan and Deci [1], “to be motivated means to be moved to do something. A person who feels no impetus or inspiration to act is thus characterized as unmotivated, whereas someone who is energized or activated towards an end is considered motivated. (p. 54)” Moreover, Sternberg [2] believes that motivation is very important for academic accomplishment and according to Newmann [3], students who are engaged are involved in their own learning. For a truly engaged learner, the joy of learning inspires a persistence to accomplish the desired goals even in the face of difficulty [4]. Engaged students have the skills to work with others and know how to transfer knowledge to solve problems creatively. The most engaging work allows for creativity, sparks
curiosity, provides an opportunity to work with others, and produces a feeling of success [5]. Motivation is a “fundamental substrate of learning” [6], while engagement is viewed in the literature as very important for enhanced learning outcomes of all students [1] [7],. Deci’s [1] Self-Determination Theory, which posits that there exists a disparity in effectiveness between activities deemed extrinsically motivating (done for an outcome separable from the activity) and intrinsically motivating (done for the inherent enjoyment of the activity.) Intrinsic motivators are characterized by autonomous action, while extrinsic motivators are characterized by controlled action. In education, intrinsic motivators are those that reveal the underlying benefit to the learning process, while extrinsic motivators are those that emphasize grades and student performance [8]. Intellectual disability begins in childhood and people with intellectual disability face limitations in their mental functioning seen in below-average intelligence (IQ) tests and in their ability to communicate, socialize, and take care of their everyday needs. The level of disability can vary from person to person and can be categorized as mild, moderate, severe, or profound. Motivation has been identified as an area of particular difficulty for individuals with intellectual disabilities [9]. Students with intellectual disabilities tend to exhibit belowaverage academic motivation and self-determination [10] following the general rule that individuals with disabilities tend to expect negative outcomes in coping in domains directly affected by their disability [11], [12]. The education and psychology literature quite clearly shows that individuals with significant disabilities can learn to selfregulate and self-manage their own behavior, become less dependent on others, express preferences and use those preferences to make choices [13] [14]. According to Gilmore & Cuskelly [14], although persistence does not guarantee competence, children who are able to sustain their goal-directed behavior are likely to be more successful. Persistence in the face of failure, the ability to cope with frustration when tasks cannot be mastered quickly, and
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