4. Urban landscape and identity
Landscape is a dynamic phenomenon which is shaped by both natural and cultural forces. Thus, change is an inherent character of any landscape. Changes in landscape may not always happen as a result of planned actions, but may also be an unexpected effect [28]. Although change of the environments does not necessarily have to result in negative ways, it is a process that is often perceived in negative terms. The magnitude and speed of the change that has been faced since the 20th century is dramatic and environmental problems it has caused is apparent and alarming. Besides current landscape changes are characterized by the loss of diversity, coherence and identity of the existing landscapes [29].
The major forces of landscape change can be defined as [28]:
1. Socioeconomic driving forces (primarily economic factors; market economy, globalization etc.)
2. Political driving forces (political programs, laws, policies etc.)
3. Technological driving forces (information technology, developments in transportation etc.)
4. Natural driving forces (changes in climate, topography, soil characteristics etc. and natural disasters)
5. Cultural driving forces
On the other hand, Antrop (2006) is more specific and definite when defining the driving sources [30]. According to him the main driving forces of landscape change are [30]:
1. Mobility patterns related to accessibility of places
2. Urbanization process
3. Decisions affecting large areas that overrule local decisions
4. Calamities
Landscape change is a continuous and rather complex process. Dealing with it requires a multidisciplinary approach. The above factors are all in some extent linked to each other. However, landscapes are considerably complex systems where it is often difficult to understand how driving forces interact and influence each other. This section will focus on the effects of two major driving forces of landscape change on urban landscape identity; urbanization and globalization.
Urbanization has been one of the significant phenomena which has dramatically changed our physical and social environments since the second half of the last century. Antrop (2004) defines urbanization as “a complex process that transforms the rural or natural landscapes into urban and industrial ones forming star-shaped spatial patterns controlled by the physical conditions of the site and its accessibility by transportation routes” [31]. Certainly, improvements in transportation and increased mobility have led to expansion of urban areas, as well as the transformation of rural areas into urban ones. Terms like urban sprawl, urban fringe and suburbanization emerged in relation to urbanization process.
Urbanization process is mainly about industrialization and economic activities. People prefer living in urban areas rather than rural areas because they hope to achieve a better quality of life in cities. However, urbanization processes in developed and developing countries do not necessarily shape cities and towns the same. In most of the developing countries, planned development of urban areas cannot always “catch” the population increase rates (mainly caused by immigration from rural areas) due to insufficient development and management strategies, as well as funding. Therefore, in contrast to mostly planned urban expansion in developed countries, developing countries face with low quality environments such as slums and squatter housings. This not only affects the quality of physical environment and image of the city, but also leads to fragmentation of social coherence and social identity. As Antrop (2004) summarizes; “urbanizationis primarily a complex of functional changes, followed by morphological and structural ones” [31].
Cities are not only physical constructs, but also involve social structures. The citizens are the fundamental elements of cities that keep it alive and functioning. There is a mutual relationship between a city’s physical characteristics and its citizens. While the physical dimension of a city (buildings, open and green spaces, streets etc.) is shaped and formed under the influence of its citizens, it also shapes its citizens life-styles and social identity throughout the time. Cities are thus cultural heritages. As Stephenson puts it culture and identity are not merely about social relationships, but also spatial [32].
From a psychological perspective Göregenli (2005) asserts that urban identity or urban identities are a result of complex relationships between individual self, place identity and urban environments [23]. Cities are a product of continuous interaction between the physical environment and social life; their image reflects the communities’ experiences, beliefs and values. Consequently identity of an urban place is the total of both physical and social distinctive features that is unique to it [12].
Meaning and sense of belonging are central to perceived urban identity. According to Lalli developing sense of belonging to a city requires coherence in urbanization process [23]. Unfortunately, today’s cities are shaped under international influences and it is quite difficult to define planning and design forms which are necessary to maintain the local identity [33].
According to Lynch, identity is part of the image of a city. Although the image of a city is not necessarily the same as its identity [34], it is the physical and most instant perceived reflection of its identity. In his work “The Image of the City”, Lynch (1960) defines three components of an environmental image as; (i) identity, (ii) structure and (iii) meaning [35]. The first two are more related to physical structure of the city, but meaning involves more difficult processes between the individual and the city. According to Lynch, identification of an object is the first step for a workable image. He points out that individuality or oneness, spatial or pattern relation of the object to the observer and to other objects, and finally practical or emotional meaning are the requirements of a workable image.