Tax havens[edit]
Main article: Tax haven
The ratio of German assets in tax havens in relation to the total German GDP.[37] The "Big 7" shown are Hong Kong, Ireland, Lebanon, Liberia, Panama, Singapore, and Switzerland.
A tax haven is a state, country or territory where certain taxes are levied at a low rate or not at all, which are used by businesses for tax avoidance and tax evasion.[38] Individuals and/or corporate entities can find it attractive to move themselves to areas with reduced taxation. This creates a situation of tax competition among governments. Taxes vary substantially across jurisdictions.[39] Sovereign states have theoretically unlimited powers to enact tax laws affecting their territories, unless limited by previous international treaties. The central feature of a tax haven is that its laws and other measures can be used to evade or avoid the tax laws or regulations of other jurisdictions.[40] In its December 2008 report on the use of tax havens by American corporations,[41] the U.S. Government Accountability Office was unable to provide a satisfactory definition of a tax haven, but regarded the following characteristics as indicative of it: nil or nominal taxes; lack of effective exchange of tax information with foreign tax authorities; lack of transparency in the operation of legislative, legal or administrative provisions; no requirement for a substantive local presence; and self-promotion as an offshore financial center.
A 2012 report from the Tax Justice Network estimated that between USD $21 trillion and $32 trillion is sheltered from taxes in tax havens worldwide.[42] If such hidden offshore assets are considered, many countries with governments nominally in debt would be net creditor nations.[43] However, the tax policy director of the Chartered Institute of Taxation expressed skepticism over the accuracy of the figures.[44] Daniel J. Mitchell of the US-based Cato Institute says that the report also assumes, when considering notional lost tax revenue, that 100% of the money deposited offshore is evading payment of tax.[45]
Tax havens have been criticized because they often result in the accumulation of idle cash[46] which is expensive and inefficient for companies to repatriate.[47] The tax shelter benefits result in a tax incidence disadvantaging the poor.[48] Many tax havens are thought to have connections to "fraud, money laundering and terrorism."[49] Ongoing investigations of illegal tax haven abuse have produced few convictions.[50][51] Lobbying pertaining to tax havens and associated transfer pricing has also been criticized.[52] Accountants' opinions on the propriety of tax havens have been evolving,[53] as have the opinions of their corporate users,[54] governments,[55][56] and politicians,[57][58] although their use by Fortune 500 companies[59] and others remains widespread.[60] Reform proposals centering on the Big Four accountancy firms have been advanced.[61] Some governments appear to be using computer spyware to scrutinize corporations' finances.[62]